Roman Empire: History, Mythology, Archeology & Phrases
History
Second Triumvirate & Rise of Augustus
The Second Triumvirate was formed by Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus. Octavian consolidated power by marginalizing Lepidus and defeating Marc Antony and Cleopatra at the naval Battle of Actium in 31 BC. This event marks the beginning of the Roman Empire, with Octavian becoming Emperor Augustus (Princeps).
Augustus held the powers of imperium (supreme military power), protestas tribunicia (right to veto), and Pontifex Maximus (highest religious authority). He controlled the public treasury (aerarium), which managed tax revenues.
The Praetorian Guard served as the emperor’s bodyguard.
Pax Romana & Imperial Dynasties
The Pax Romana was a period of peace under Emperor Augustus (27 BC – 14 AD) following years of civil wars.
Provinces were divided into senatorial (administered by the Senate) and imperial (administered by the Emperor).
Key dynasties:
- Julio-Claudian Dynasty (27 BC – 68 AD): Expansion into Egypt, Mauretania, and Britannia; defeat at Teutoburg Forest (9 AD); last emperor was Nero.
- Flavian Dynasty (69-96 AD): Defeat of the Jewish rebellion; consolidation of Britain.
- Antonine Dynasty: Conquest of Dacia (Romania); Trajan’s Column; maximum expansion of the empire.
- Severan Dynasty (193-235 AD): End of expansion; Rome becomes defensive.
Tetrarchy & Division of the Empire
The Tetrarchy was a system of imperial government established by Diocletian around 290 AD, with four rulers: two senior emperors (Augusti) and two junior emperors (Caesars).
Constantine founded Constantinople in 330 AD. Theodosius made Christianity the official religion of the empire with the Edict of Thessalonica.
The Roman Empire was divided into Western (Latin) and Eastern (Greek) parts. The Western Roman Empire fell in 476 AD due to frontier instability and invasions. The Eastern Empire (Byzantine Empire) lasted until the fall of Constantinople in 1453.
Roman Monuments
- Statue of Augustus: Julio-Claudian
- Relief of Ara Pacis: Julio-Claudian
- Trajan’s Column: Trajan/Antonine
- Bust of Tiberius Claudius: Julio-Claudian
- Altar of Temple of Vespasian: Flavian
- Arch of Septimius Severus: Severan
- Hagia Sophia: Justinian/Eastern
- Arch of Constantine: Constantine/Military
Mythology
Daedalus and Icarus
Daedalus built the labyrinth to imprison the Minotaur, a half-man, half-bull monster.
Daedalus and Icarus escaped using wings made of feathers and wax. Icarus flew too close to the sun, melting the wax and causing him to fall into the sea.
Moral interpretations of the myth include challenging the laws of nature and the dangers of hubris.
Archeology
Las Médulas
Las Médulas, located in León, Spain, was a Roman gold mine. The Romans used hydraulic mining techniques, releasing large amounts of water to erode the landscape and extract gold.
Roman Ruins in Spain
Roman ruins in the autonomous community of Castile and León include:
- León City: Remains of a Roman camp of Legio VII Gemina.
- Astorga (Burgos): Roman mosaics, walls, and thermal baths.
- Colonia Clunia Sulpicia (Burgos): Forum, theater, and sewage system.
Empúries
Sacrifice of Iphigenia Mosaic
A mosaic found in Empúries depicts the sacrifice of Iphigenia. Agamemnon is accompanied by Hercules and Artemis. In some versions, Iphigenia is replaced by a deer, allowing Agamemnon to sail to Troy.
History of Empúries
Greek traders from Phocis founded Empúries in the 7th century BC. In 218 BC, Roman forces landed in Empúries during the Second Punic War. In 195 BC, Cato established a Roman camp. During Augustus’ reign, the Greek and Roman settlements merged into Municipium Emporiae.
Phrases
Panem et circenses (Bread and circuses): Refers to appeasing the populace with food and entertainment.
Mens sana in corpore sano (A healthy mind in a healthy body): Emphasizes the importance of physical and mental well-being.
Ave Maria, gratia plena (Hail Mary, full of grace): A Christian prayer based on the Annunciation.