Roman Epic Poetry: From Early Fragments to Neoclassicism
Early Roman Epic Poetry
Mythological Epic
In the 3rd century BC, Livius Andronicus, a Greek prisoner of war in Rome, produced the first known work of Roman epic literature. Only fragments remain of his Odyssey, a Saturnian verse adaptation of Homer’s epic. While based on the Greek original, Andronicus adapted the poem to Roman culture, replacing names and expressions to resonate with his audience.
Historical Epic
Gnaeus Naevius, a Roman citizen and possibly a veteran of the First Punic War (c. 270 BC), wrote Bellum Poenicum, the first original Roman epic. Departing from Greek models, Naevius chose a contemporary subject – the First Punic War – aiming to boost Roman morale. His work, written in Saturnian verse, is characterized by a high and solemn style.
Quintus Ennius (239 BC) was a highly regarded poet who wrote in Oscan, Latin, and Greek. His major work, the Annals, was an 18-book epic in hexameter, chronicling Roman history from the Trojan War to his own time. Ennius is considered a pioneer for adapting the hexameter to Latin and for establishing a Roman epic tradition.
The Golden Age of Roman Epic
Virgil
Virgil’s Aeneid is the pinnacle of Latin epic poetry. This 12-book poem in dactylic hexameter tells the story of Aeneas, a Trojan hero who journeys to Italy and founds the Roman people. The first six books, modeled on the Odyssey, recount Aeneas’s travels and adventures, while the latter six, inspired by the Iliad, depict the wars in Latium. Virgil masterfully blends Homeric tradition with Roman history and values, creating a complex and enduring work.
Content of the Aeneid
- Books I-VI: Aeneas’s journey from Troy to Italy, including his encounter with Dido in Carthage and his descent into the underworld.
- Books VII-XII: The wars in Latium and Aeneas’s eventual victory, establishing the foundation for Rome.
Portrayal of Characters
The first four books focus on Dido, Aeneas, and the next four on the subsequent events. Aeneas embodies the ideal Roman hero: courageous, wise, respectful of the gods, and obedient to divine will. Dido, whose tragic love affair with Aeneas was mentioned in Naevius’s work, is portrayed as a victim of fate and divine intervention. Turnus is a young, noble, and brave warrior, but prone to violence.
Post-Augustan Epic
Lucan
Lucan (1st century AD) represents a departure from Augustan classicism. His epic poem, Pharsalia, breaks with tradition in several ways:
- Absence of Divine Apparatus: Gods are absent, removing supernatural explanations for events.
- Absence of a Traditional Hero: There is no clearly defined hero.
- Rationalism: Human reason replaces divine intervention as the driving force of events.
- Historicism: Lucan chooses a subject from his own historical era – the civil war between Caesar and Pompey.
Argument of the Pharsalia
The Pharsalia, originally titled De Bello Civile, chronicles the civil war between Caesar and Pompey in 10 books (fragments of two others exist). Lucan’s style is characterized by its intensity, intellectualism, and dramatic power, reflecting the turbulent times in which he lived.
Neoclassical Epic
The neoclassical period saw a revival of epic poetry, with authors like Silius Italicus (Punica), Valerius Flaccus (Argonautica), and Statius Papinius (Thebais and Achilleis) imitating and adapting the classical models.