Roman Hispania: Conquest, Provinces, and Lasting Legacy

Posted on Apr 6, 2025 in Latin

Peoples of Pre-Roman Iberia

Before the arrival of the Romans, the Iberian Peninsula was inhabited by various peoples:

  • Iberians: Lived along the Mediterranean coast.
  • Tartessians: Lived in western Andalusia.
  • Celts: Lived in Castile, Leon, and Galicia.
  • Celtiberians: Lived in the center of the Peninsula.
  • Greeks: Established colonies like Emporion, primarily for trade in precious metals.
  • Phoenicians: Established colonies like Malaca (Málaga).
  • Carthaginians: Had significant presence, especially in the south and east.

The Roman Conquest of Hispania

The Romans first landed on the Iberian Peninsula in 218 BC during the Second Punic War against Carthage. The Carthaginian plan was to attack Italy from the north (via Hispania and Gaul), not the south. The Roman generals leading the initial invasion were the brothers Gnaeus and Publius Cornelius Scipio. The first major Roman city founded was Tarraco (modern Tarragona).

The conquest was a long process, lasting from 218 BC to 19 AD.

  • The Lusitanians, led by the chieftain Viriathus, offered fierce resistance until his death.
  • The final peoples to be subdued were the Astures and Cantabrians in the north.

Roman Provincial Administration

The administrative division of Hispania evolved over time:

  1. Initial Division (c. 197 BC):
    • Hispania Citerior: Nearer Spain, capital Tarraco.
    • Hispania Ulterior: Further Spain, capital Hispalis (Seville), later Corduba (Cordoba).
  2. Augustan Reorganization (c. 27 BC):
    • Hispania Tarraconensis: Expanded from Hispania Citerior, capital Tarraco.
    • Hispania Baetica: Southern part of Hispania Ulterior, capital Corduba.
    • Lusitania: Western part of Hispania Ulterior, capital Emerita Augusta (Mérida).
  3. Later Additions (Diocletian Reforms, c. 293 AD):
    • Gallaecia: Northwestern part, capital Bracara Augusta (Braga).
    • Carthaginensis: Southeastern part, capital Carthago Nova (Cartagena).

Romanization: Assimilation into Roman Culture

Romanization was the slow process, lasting over six centuries, by which the diverse peoples of Hispania assimilated Roman culture, civilization, and way of life. Key factors included:

  • Roman Citizenship: Granting citizenship (civitas Romana) offered significant advantages, such as lower taxes, the right to hold political office, and land ownership rights, incentivizing adoption of Roman customs.
  • Founding of Colonies and Municipalities:
    • Municipalities (Municipia): Pre-existing towns granted Roman or Latin rights, retaining some self-governance often in exchange for higher taxes.
    • Colonies (Coloniae): New cities founded by Romans, often for veteran soldiers, inhabited by Roman citizens and enjoying full privileges.
  • The Roman Army (Exercitus): Soldiers played a crucial role as transmitters of Latin and Roman customs. Army camps often developed into permanent settlements, further spreading Roman influence. Hispanic peoples learned Vulgar Latin (the spoken form) through interaction with soldiers.
  • Latin Language: Latin eventually became the dominant language throughout the peninsula, except in the Basque-speaking regions (Vascones). It was the official language of administration, education, and later, Christian worship.
  • Road Network: The Romans constructed an extensive network of roads (over 10,000 km), greatly facilitating communication, trade, and troop movement. Notable routes included:
    • Via Augusta: Ran along the Mediterranean coast from Gades (Cadiz) towards Gaul.
    • Via de la Plata (Silver Way): Ran north-south through the western part of Hispania, connecting Emerita Augusta and Asturica Augusta (Astorga).

Roman Legacy: Emperors and Writers from Hispania

Hispania made significant contributions to the Roman Empire, including notable figures:

Roman Emperors Born in Hispania

  • Trajan (53–117 AD): Born in Italica (near Seville). One of Rome’s most successful emperors, under whom the empire reached its greatest territorial extent.
  • Hadrian (76–138 AD): Born in Italica or possibly Rome to a family from Hispania; Trajan’s relative and successor. Known for consolidating the empire’s borders and his patronage of arts.
  • Theodosius I (The Great) (347–395 AD): Born in Cauca (Coca, near Segovia). The last emperor to rule over both the Eastern and Western halves of the Roman Empire. Made Christianity the state religion. After his death, the empire was permanently divided between his sons.

Famous Writers from Hispania

  • Seneca the Elder (Marcus Annaeus Seneca) (c. 54 BC – c. 39 AD): Born in Corduba. A renowned rhetorician and writer.
  • Seneca the Younger (Lucius Annaeus Seneca) (c. 4 BC – 65 AD): Born in Corduba, son of Seneca the Elder. A prominent Stoic philosopher, statesman, dramatist, and tutor to Emperor Nero.
  • Lucan (Marcus Annaeus Lucanus) (39–65 AD): Born in Corduba, nephew of Seneca the Younger. Poet famous for his epic poem Pharsalia, detailing the civil war between Caesar and Pompey.
  • Martial (Marcus Valerius Martialis) (c. 40 – c. 104 AD): Born in Bilbilis (near Calatayud). Celebrated for his witty and often satirical epigrams (short poems).