Roman Historiography: Caesar, Nepos, and Sallust
Origins of Roman Historiography
The funeral eulogies (laudationes funebres) spoken at funerals of famous people, ancient records of judges, and especially the annals of the pontiffs, served as the foundation for Roman historiography. These practical writings with literary aspirations evolved as the Romans expanded their territories after the First Punic War (264-241 BC). They began to record their history as political propaganda and national affirmation, documenting events year by year, similar to the priests’ annals. Thus, the first historians were called analysts. Initially, they wrote in Greek, a language more widely understood. Later, they switched to Latin. Cato (3rd-2nd centuries BC) was a key figure, authoring a seven-book history of Rome titled Origins. By Sulla’s time (early 1st century BC), analysts focused on the novelistic appeal of stories and detailed events. During Cicero’s era, Latin literature saw the rise of two major historians: Caesar and Sallust, marking the maturity of Latin historiography.
Julius Caesar
2.1. Biography
Gaius Julius Caesar, born in 100 BC, came from a patrician family claiming descent from Iulus, son of Aeneas. He joined the popular party early in his career. In 63 BC, the year of the Catiline Conspiracy, he was praetor and possibly sided with the conspirators. From 60 BC, Caesar formed the First Triumvirate with Crassus and Pompey. His political career became intertwined with Rome’s general history. In 59 BC, he was appointed consul and later became propraetor in Gaul, conquering it over eight years. After a civil war with Pompey, he became dictator in 48 BC. He was assassinated in the Senate on the Ides of March (March 15), 44 BC.
2.2. Works
2.2.1. Construction
Of Caesar’s works, only two complete historical accounts remain: Gallic Wars and Civil War. These works are called Commentarii, suggesting they were developed from notes or military reports collected during his campaigns.
A) Gallic War (De Bello Gallico): This work comprises seven books written by Caesar about the war in Gaul, followed by an eighth book by his lieutenant, Aulus Hirtius. The events in the first seven books occurred between 58 and 52 BC, based on daily military operations. Caesar wrote this to justify his actions and enhance his prestige.
B) Civil War (De Bello Civili): This work covers the events from 49 to 48 BC, the civil war between Caesar and Pompey. It consists of three books. Its intention is apologetic, justifying Caesar’s usurpation of power and blaming the Senate and aristocracy for the war.
2.2.2. Style
Caesar’s works are excellent examples of historical narrative, noted for their clarity. The story is presented vividly, without unnecessary details, ambitious introductions, long descriptions, or moral considerations. Caesar’s language is purist, avoiding profanity, archaic terms, or poetic language, though sometimes features are neglected. Gaius Julius Caesar is considered a model of classical prose.
Cornelius Nepos
Little is known about Cornelius Nepos. He was from northern Italy and spent much of his life in Rome, dedicated to historical and literary work, away from politics. Living between 99 and 25 BC, he was highly regarded in literary circles and befriended Atticus, Cicero, Catullus, and other prominent figures.
2.3. Works
2.3.1. Construction
Among his works, On Illustrious Men (De viris illustribus) stands out. It contains biographies of great Romans and foreigners, especially Greeks, who excelled in literature, politics, or other fields. These biographies presented parallel lives between Romans and non-Romans. Nepos is credited with introducing the biographical genre into Latin literature.
2.3.2. Intention and Style
Nepos wrote with an exemplary intention, focusing on the moral lessons that heroes could transmit. His work is full of personal anecdotes and was appreciated in his time, but it contains contradictions and chronological errors, indicating that he did not always use the most reliable sources. Nepos’s language is monotonous and lacks elegance, though some fragments show a certain level of rhetoric.
Sallust
2.4. Biography
Crispus Sallust was born in Amiterno (Sabina) around 87 BC. He entered politics at a young age, experiencing more failures than successes. A close friend of Julius Caesar, he was restored to politics and appointed proconsul of Africa (46 BC), where he amassed great wealth. Returning to Rome, he built a villa on the Quirinal and retired from politics to pursue his vocation as a historian. He died in 35 BC. Among his works, only two historical monographs are complete: The Conspiracy of Catiline and The Jugurthine War. Fragments remain of his last work, Histories, which covered Roman history from 79 to 66 BC.
2.5. Works
The Conspiracy of Catiline (De Catilinae coniuratione): This monograph recounts the events of the Catiline Conspiracy in Rome (63 BC). Sallust aims to depict the social customs of the time, expose the cowardice and hypocrisy of the nobility, a social class he despised, and express his democratic convictions.
Jugurthine War (Bellum Iugurthinum): This work tells the story of Rome’s war against Jugurtha, king of Numidia, in the late 2nd century BC. Sallust uses these historical events to attack the nobility and the corruption of morals in Rome, where, he claims, everything can be bought.
2.6. Style
Sallust’s narrative differs from Caesar’s due to its greater impartiality, moral reflections, and diatribes against the materialism and vices of his time. He criticizes the lack of leadership, despite being a protagonist in the events. His monographs are notable for their speeches, which are real pieces of oratory, the psychological portraits of characters, and detailed descriptions of landscapes. His language is somewhat archaic, and his style is characterized by conciseness.