Roman History: From Origins to Empire’s Fall
Origins of Rome
The historical origins of Rome date back to the mid-8th century BC. Some Latin tribes settled on the banks of the Tiber River, specifically on Palatine Hill, near Tiber Island and a ford (Latin: vadum) that allowed crossing the river. These early settlements grew into the city that would be called Rome.
The Roman Monarchy
In these early times, Rome was ruled by a monarchy.
Republican Rome (509 BC)
In 509 BC, a revolt overthrew the last Etruscan king, Tarquinius Superbus, and Rome became a Republic.
Patricians and Plebeians
From the time of the monarchy, Roman citizens were divided into two social groups with very different rights:
- Patricians: A minority of aristocratic families who considered themselves descendants of Rome’s founders. They were grouped into large families with common ancestors (gens). They owned land and livestock and governed the city.
- Plebeians: All those who arrived in the city after its founding. This was the largest group, including farmers, artisans, and merchants. They could own land but initially lacked political rights.
Rome’s Conquest of the Mediterranean
Expansion Timeline
Between 500 and 250 BC, through prolonged wars, the city of Rome gained control over the Italian peninsula.
Between 264 and 146 BC, Rome clashed with Carthage, the dominant naval power in the Mediterranean at the time. These conflicts are known as the Punic Wars. Following its victory, Rome imposed its rule over the entire western Mediterranean.
Between the 2nd century BC and the 2nd century AD, Roman legions conquered Greece and the eastern Mediterranean. They also completed the occupation of Hispania (Spain), Gaul (France), and Britannia (Britain) in the West, along with provinces in central Europe.
The Roman Empire
Octavian Augustus, First Emperor
After the death of Julius Caesar, his adopted son Octavian defeated his rivals in a civil war, becoming the most powerful man in Rome. In 27 BC, the Senate granted him extensive powers and the title Augustus, meaning ‘chosen by the gods’.
Octavian Augustus inaugurated a new system of government: the Empire. He concentrated all civil and military powers, previously held by magistrates, in his person. He was appointed consul for life and commander-in-chief of the army with the title of Imperator (Emperor). He drafted the laws (edicts) applicable throughout the Empire.
He also became Pontifex Maximus, the highest religious authority. Upon his death, Augustus was deified (apotheosis), establishing the imperial cult. Emperors were considered gods, and their worship was a demonstration of loyalty to Rome.
Two Centuries of Pax Romana
Throughout the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, the Empire achieved its maximum expansion and prosperity. This period, known as the Pax Romana (Roman Peace), saw relatively few wars, and conquered territories became Romanized. Rome grew into a major city with over a million inhabitants.
Social Groups in Urban Society
Most free people (freemen) enjoyed Roman citizenship, which meant they did not pay land taxes, possessed political rights, and were protected by Roman laws.
Slaves were numerous in Rome. They had no rights or personal freedom; their masters could sell them or end their lives. However, a master could choose to free a slave (manumission).
Crisis and Division of the Empire
The Division in 395 AD
In 395 AD, to make defense easier, Emperor Theodosius divided the Empire between his sons, Arcadius and Honorius. From this point, the Roman Empire was formally separated into the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire (later known as the Byzantine Empire).
The End of the Western Empire (476 AD)
In 476 AD, Odoacer, a Germanic chieftain, deposed Romulus Augustulus, a young boy who is considered the last Western Roman Emperor.