Roman Legacy and the Rise of Islamic Influence in Iberia
The Roman Peoples and Iberian Cultures
During the first millennium, indigenous cultures encountered the Phoenicians, Greeks, Carthaginians (Mediterranean), and Celts (north). These interactions resulted in a blend of native traits and external influences. The Phoenicians (Lebanon, 8th century BC) founded colonies such as Malaka, Sexi, Abdera, and Gadir. The Greeks (7th century BC) settled on the east coast, from Rosass and Ampurias to Denia. Phoenician and Greek merchants sought metals, agricultural products, and fisheries. They introduced currency, phonetic writing, boosted trade, and founded cities. The Carthaginians (Carthage, 6th century BC) colonized Ibiza to impede Greek passage to the south, founding Carthage. From the 3rd century, the peninsula became linked to military trade due to conflicts with Rome for Mediterranean control. Before the Roman arrival, two main cultural areas existed in the Iberian Peninsula: Iberian and Celtic.
The Survival of Romano-Cultural Legacy
In the 2nd century BC, the Romans arrived in the peninsula due to wars between Rome and Carthage for Mediterranean dominance. Conquest took over two centuries due to resistance and internal divisions within Rome and the pre-Roman political landscape. Hispania became a province of the Roman Empire, undergoing Romanization. Factors facilitating this included the construction of new towns, public buildings, and road networks. Latin became the official language, trade flourished, religious syncretism occurred, the army was present, and Christianity spread. Peoples who resisted were subjected to slavery. Romanization was rapid and strong in the south and east, slower in the Plateau, and minimal in the north.
The Barbarian Invasions
From the 2nd century AD, the Roman Empire faced crisis and decay, leading to invasions by the Swabians, Vandals, Alans, and Visigoths. The Visigoths were tasked with expelling other barbarian groups and preserving imperial authority in Hispania. They established a state with its capital in Toledo, aiming for territorial unity under an elective monarchy. The Aula Regia and councils were key institutions. Initially, Hispano-Romans and Visigoths were governed by different laws, but Recesvinto promulgated the Liber Iudiciorum, a new legal code incorporating Roman and Germanic law. The Visigoths, initially Arians, embraced Christianity during the Third Council of Toledo under Recaredo. Disputes over the throne, power struggles, and social divisions between Goths and Hispano-Romans weakened the Visigothic kingdom, facilitating the Muslim conquest in 711.
Emirate and Caliphate of Cordoba
The Iberian Peninsula’s invasion resulted from the dynamic expansion of Islam and Visigothic weakness. In 711, the Gothic king Rodrigo was defeated by the Arab and Berber army led by Tarik. The Muslims conquered the entire peninsula, aided by Hispanics who hoped for less harsh rule. Some remained Christian, while others converted to Islam. Al-Andalus became a province of the Caliphate of Damascus. The Umayyads were replaced by the Abbasids (750), who moved the Caliphate’s capital to Baghdad. Abderraman fled to Al-Andalus and established the independent Emirate of Cordoba. His successors boosted the economy and culture and improved Roman infrastructure. By 1031, internal conflicts led to the territory’s fragmentation into Taifa kingdoms, including Toledo, Sevilla, and Murcia.