Roman Literary Theory: Rhetoric, Poetics, and the Sublime
Roman Literary Theory
Rhetorical and Poetic Synthesis
The main feature of Roman literary theory, primarily represented by Cicero and Horace, is the synthesis of rhetoric and poetics, as highlighted by A. Fontan in their article, Cicero and Horace, Literary Critics. This theory arose in response to a growing trend in literary practice where the distinction between rhetoric and poetics was becoming blurred.
Elocutio and the Restriction of Rhetoric
Poets began to prioritize elocutio (style and expression) over mimesis (representation), focusing more on linguistic artistry than narrative content. This shift led to the definition of poetry as ‘beautiful speech.’ Simultaneously, rhetoric experienced what G. Genette termed a ‘restriction.’ Influenced by grammarians, rhetoric’s focus narrowed to elocutio, shifting from the art of persuasion to the art of crafting elegant speeches. Consequently, rhetoric and poetics converged around their shared emphasis on language.
Cicero and the Rhetorical Tradition
Cicero championed the traditional view of rhetoric as a component of political science, emphasizing persuasive effectiveness. Despite this, Roman rhetoric developed elaborate theories of style, evident in the proliferation of rhetorical figures. The Rhetorica ad Herennium, mistakenly attributed to Cicero during the Middle Ages, exemplifies this trend, with its fourth book providing a comprehensive analysis of style, including 64 figures of speech.
Horace and the Pragmatic Ideal
Horace, like Cicero, sought to counter the prevailing trends in poetic theory. He advocated for a ‘Classic’ ideal, combining aesthetic and pragmatic purposes. Horace believed art should have a moral impact, cautioning against prioritizing technical skill over meaningful content. He emphasized the importance of ‘ideas and well-drawn characters’ over mere stylistic flourishes. Similarly, Cicero stressed that ‘reason is the principle and source of good writing.’
Quintilian and the Defense of Persuasion
Quintilian, in his Institutio Oratoria, resisted the reduction of rhetoric to mere elocutio, reaffirming persuasion as its core function. However, he acknowledged the contemporary trend of equating poetry with elegant writing, a view prevalent among grammarians.
The Sublime and Longinus
Amidst the emphasis on rhetoric and grammar, a different perspective emerged. Longinus, writing around the reign of Augustus, offered a contrasting view in On the Sublime. He argued that true literary excellence resided in the sublimity of thought and the elevation of the soul, attributing inspiration and divine status to poets, a concept that diverged from the prevailing focus on technical skill.
A Lasting Controversy
This tension between technical virtuosity and inspired expression, between rhetoric and the sublime, has persisted throughout literary history, shaping the ongoing debate about the nature and purpose of literature.