Roman Society and the Rise and Fall of an Empire
Patricians and Commoners
Patricians: Formed by a minority of aristocratic families, descendants of the founders of Rome’s great families, grouped with common ancestors (gens). They also owned land and cattle.
Plebeians: Formed by all who came to the city after its foundation. They were the most numerous, comprising farmers, artisans, and merchants.
Crisis of the 1st Century BC
Rome went into crisis due to the expansion of its northwest. This ensued:
- Social Conflict: The conquests brought great wealth and great social inequalities. Some people also made money with the spoils of war and by selling slaves. The complaints of urban commoners were the cause of social conflicts, like the brothers Gracchus, who advocated for a better distribution of wealth.
- Civil Wars: The Senate had the power to appoint military leaders. Around 48 BC, Julius Caesar became dictator and assumed ultimate powers.
Octavian Augustus, Emperor
When Julius Caesar died, his adopted son Octavian won a civil war and became the most powerful man in Rome. In 27 BC, the Senate gave him many powers and the title of Augustus (chosen by the gods). Octavian Augustus inaugurated the empire, a new system of government. When Augustus died, he was deified (apotheosis), and the imperial cult was organized.
The Organization of the Empire
Symbolically, the judges, the Senate, and the *comitia* continued to exist. It was the Emperor who held all the important positions in the empire. He passed on his orders through imperial advice. The imperial territories were organized into provinces, with a governor at the head, assisted by officials (Roman).
Two Centuries of Pax Romana
Throughout the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, the empire reached its peak expansion. During this time, wars were few, and the conquered territories were Romanized. In 212, Emperor Caracalla granted Roman citizenship to all inhabitants. Throughout the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD, Christianity was gaining strength.
Social Groups
They were divided into two groups:
- People who were part of the populace (clients), the *Nobilitas* (rich patricians and plebeians), senators, and administrators.
- Non-citizens, freedmen, and slaves.
Crisis Enters the Empire
From the 3rd century AD, the authority of the empire weakened. Between 235 and 269, there were 30 legitimate emperors and over 70 illegitimate heads of the army. The army increased its power. Added to all these problems was the absence of slaves, which caused a decline in agricultural production, and the barbarian attacks that cut off roads.
Division of the Empire
In 395, Theodosius divided the empire between his sons, Arcadius and Honorius. The Western Roman Empire was separated from the East (Byzantine), which was more populous and wealthy. The Eastern emperor defended the frontiers against the barbarians, allowing the rule to survive.
Christianity, Official Religion
Constantine overcame his rival in 312 and was named the new emperor. He protected and authorized Christianity in 313. Emperor Theodosius made Christianity the official religion in 360 AD.
The End of the Western Roman Empire
In the 5th century, Germanic peoples crossed the borders and entered the west, driven by a central Asian people, the Huns. Suebi, Alans, and others created independent kingdoms. In 476, Odoacer removed Romulus Augustus, a 10-year-old child, from office.