Romanesque and Gothic Art and Architecture in Spain
1. Romanesque Painting
Romanesque churches create a magical, symbolic, and spiritual interior space. Painting dominates these interiors due to its symbolic narrative and color effects, amplified by indirect lighting. Romanesque painting emphasizes expressive, narrative, and symbolic values. Figures are outlined with thick lines and filled with vibrant colors, highlighting the symbolism of light as spiritual illumination. Movement is absent; images are hieratic, unconcerned with realism, proportion, or perspective. Simplified forms, conventions like “V” shaped feet, schematic devices, symmetrical folds, and profound expressions contribute to a magnificent synthesis. Compositions are simple, regular, and symmetrical, with subjects arranged in a strict spatial hierarchy, making the church a visual Bible.
Fresco is the primary technique, applied to the building’s walls or occasionally on wooden panels. Notable examples in Spain include the churches of Santa Maria and Sant Climent de Taüll (Lleida), San Isidoro de León, and Santa Cruz de Maderuelo (Segovia). Only San Isidoro remains in its original location.
Sant Climent de Taüll
Originally in the small church of Sant Climent de Taüll and now in the Museu Nacional d’Art de Catalunya, the Pantocrator in the apse is an iconic example of Spanish Romanesque art. Christ appears as an authoritative and awe-inspiring judge, framed by a mandorla inscribed with Alpha and Omega, symbolizing the beginning and end of all things. He holds a holy book inscribed “I am the light of the world” and offers a blessing with the other hand. The surrounding Tetramorph depicts the four evangelists’ symbols, supported by angels. Below, arches frame the Virgin and five apostles, emphasizing the hierarchical structure. The chromatic treatment, facial features, and folds of the Pantocrator’s garments convey strength and vigor. The severe black circles of his eyes, high eyebrows, and open expression, combined with the stylized beard and hair, reduce the image to a geometric design, a perfect representation of the supernatural divinity.
Santa Maria de Taüll shares similar pictorial features but focuses on the Epiphany: the Madonna and Child enthroned at the center, with the Magi adoring on either side, and six apostles below.
Santa Cruz de Maderuelo (Segovia)
This small rural shrine dedicated to the True Cross had its frescoes removed to the Prado Museum. The dome features the twelve apostles, the Tetramorph with angels, and Christ as Pantocrator in a mandorla. The apse wall depicts the Holy Cross and Agnus Dei. Below, Mary Magdalene washes Christ’s feet, and above, the Epiphany. Two Genesis themes—the Creation of Adam and Eve and the Original Sin—appear over the chapel entrance. Their naked bodies exemplify Romanesque painting’s antinaturalism. The message relates to the chronology of salvation, dating to the early 12th century.
San Isidoro de León
Serving as the Royal Pantheon of the kings of León, San Isidoro’s painted ceilings and walls offer a unique example of early Spanish Romanesque painting (early 12th century). The complex imagery follows biblical narratives: Christ’s childhood and Passion, the Book of Revelation, saints, symbolic figures, and a calendar. The overall theme suggests a funerary context, encompassing life (Christ’s childhood), death (Passion), and resurrection (Apocalypse), with allusions to the passage of time.
2. Romanesque Sculpture
Throughout the Middle Ages, sculpture evolved gradually. In the High Middle Ages, monumental sculpture was limited. Two major styles emerged: Romanesque and Gothic.
Romanesque sculpture drew inspiration from Late Roman and Early Christian sarcophagi. Its defining features include adaptation to architectural settings, horror vacui, and emphasis on religious elements. The strong religious content explains its hierarchical iconography. Romanesque art is essentially symbolic, reducing representations to outlines, resulting in deformed figures and indifference to realistic volume. Sculpture serves as an adjunct to the temple, with themes and placement dictated by location: the Pantocrator and Tetramorph typically decorate tympanums, while archivolts, jambs, and capitals feature diverse themes (vegetal, historical, apostles, etc.). Small-scale sculptures in wood, ivory, and metalwork also exist.
Two prominent subjects are Christ, characterized by hieratic stiffness, symmetry, wide eyes, and serenity, and the Virgin and Child, equally rigid, with the Virgin serving as a throne for the adult-like Child.
Prime examples of monumental sculpture in Spain include the tympanums of the Collegiate Church of San Isidoro and the Portico of Glory at Santiago de Compostela Cathedral.
Portico of Glory, Santiago de Compostela Cathedral
Preceding the current portico was a monumental gateway. Master Mateo designed the western entrance, extending the cathedral’s base. The portico is organized around three axes: a central mullion depicting the Tree of Jesse, with the tympanum showing Christ the Judge surrounded by the evangelists; lateral arches lacking tympanums, with apostles and prophets on the pilasters and arches; and a kneeling figure of Master Mateo at the mullion’s base. This exceptional work exhibits unique realism, increased volume, and a humane tone characteristic of Gothic sculpture.
Tympanums of San Isidoro de León
Located on the Camino de Santiago, this church shows connections with Santiago de Compostela Cathedral. The south façade features two decorated doorways: Forgiveness (dedicated to pilgrims) and the Lamb. The Forgiveness doorway depicts the Descent from the Cross, Ascension, and the Three Marys at the Sepulchre, reflecting the style of Compostela workshops. The Lamb doorway’s tympanum shows the sacrifice of Isaac, with Abraham, Sarah, Ishmael, and the Agnus Dei.
Monumental sculpture also adorned monastery cloisters. The cloister of Santo Domingo de Silos (Burgos) features reliefs depicting Christ, the Ascension, Pentecost, Doubting Thomas, and the Disciples at Emmaus, marking the transition to Gothic themes like the Tree of Jesse and the Annunciation.
3. Gothic Architecture
Gothic architecture reflects a shift in the Christian perception of God as light, a source of life and happiness. Gothic cathedrals are designed as light-filled spaces, embodying God’s presence. Pointed arches, ribbed vaults, external buttresses, and stained glass windows characterize this style. The cross-shaped plan, three to five naves, elevated transept, and header with ambulatory and radiating chapels are retained. Façades feature large towers with steeples and ornate decoration.
Notable Spanish Gothic cathedrals include Burgos, Toledo, and León.
Burgos Cathedral
Initiated by the bishop of Burgos, the cathedral draws on Romanesque elements. Master Enrique emphasized the presbytery and transept, creating a five-nave plan compartmentalized into chapels. The façade features three portals flanked by two simple towers.
Toledo Cathedral
Built over a former mosque, Toledo Cathedral’s first architect prioritized a five-nave hall-like plan with a double ambulatory and chapels. The double header allows for more chapels. Lobed arches reflect Moorish influence.
León Cathedral
The most French-influenced of the Castilian cathedrals, León Cathedral has three naves, a prominent transept, and a well-developed ambulatory. The clerestory provides ample light, making it the brightest Spanish cathedral, enhanced by extensive stained glass. The west portal, with its freely placed towers flanking the central body, appears less harmonious.
Gothic Civil Architecture
Economic growth fueled a renewal of civil architecture, driven by a wealthy class. Military residences, hospitals, and especially town halls gained prominence. A common feature across Europe and the Iberian Peninsula, particularly in the Crown of Aragon, was the emphasis on outward appearance.
Lonja de Valencia
Comprising two parts: the front office, serving as the market, and the Consulate’s grand hall. The rectangular front office is divided into three naves supported by spiral columns, similar to the Lonja de Palma, creating a spacious and visually striking effect. The elegant vaults enhance the sense of weightlessness. The exterior façade features Gothic windows with tracery and the coat of arms of the Kingdom of Aragon.