Romanticism: A Cultural Revolution
Romanticism: A Cultural Revolution in 19th Century Europe
Romanticism, spanning Europe during the first half of the nineteenth century, represents a complete renewal of spirit and a unique approach to life, manifested in all cultural spheres. The movement’s initial formulations emerged in 1798 in Germany and England, coinciding with significant political and social changes in Europe between 1789 and 1815:
- Crisis of absolute monarchy and the rise of parliamentary government.
- Triumph of liberalism, advocating for political, economic, and individual freedom, coinciding with the French Revolution (1830).
- Industrial Revolution and the expansion of the capitalist economy.
- Ascension of the bourgeoisie to political power.
Ideological Characteristics of Romanticism
- Individualism and subjectivism
- Defense of freedom
- Irrationalism
- Emotional intensity
- Idealism
- Clash with reality
Key Themes in Romantic Literature
- The inner self
- Nature
- The irrational
- Rebellion
- The popular and national
- Escape in time and space
Romanticism in Spain
Romanticism’s development in Spain was delayed until the 1830s. The conservative sentiment of the ruling class, along with other factors, led to a traditionalist and conservative form of Romanticism. While Realism was emerging in other parts of Europe, Romanticism took root in Spain with prominent authors like Bécquer and Rosalía de Castro.
Romanticism in Spain (I)
Despite the delayed arrival, Spanish literature had always exhibited romantic tendencies, such as medieval poetry and romances, with their emphasis on sentimentality and a mysterious, heroic Middle Ages. Spanish Romanticism originated in Andalusia and Catalonia.
German consul Johann Nikolaus Böhl von Faber, in a Cadiz newspaper article, defended Spain’s Golden Age theatre and criticized Neoclassicism. The ensuing controversy helped spread Romantic ideals. In Catalonia, Romantic ideas were promoted after 1823 in El Europeo newspaper, which championed Romantic ideals and rejected Neoclassicism. With Ferdinand VII’s death in 1833, Romanticism finally triumphed in Spain, and exiled liberals returned.
Literature: Romanticism (II)
Several prose subgenres flourished during the Romantic period:
- Costumbrismo (Genre Scenes): Short stories reflecting the lifestyles, habits, customs, environments, and popular types of contemporary society. Authors like Ramón de Mesonero Romanos, with Escenas Matritenses, gained popularity.
- Historical Novel: Inspired by history and legends of the past, particularly the Middle Ages. Authors often emulated French writers like Victor Hugo (Les Misérables and Notre Dame de Paris).
- Legends and Fantastic Tales: Stories rich in foreign, mysterious, supernatural, and inexplicable elements. G.A. Bécquer is a notable example.
Romantic Poets and Lyric Poetry
Lyric poetry was the favored genre of Romanticism, allowing artists to express their emotions. José de Espronceda, alongside prose writer Mariano José de Larra, stands as a significant figure in Spanish Romanticism during the first half of the 19th century. The latter half of the century saw the emergence of two major Romantic poets: Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer and Rosalía de Castro.
José de Espronceda
Educated in Neoclassicism, Espronceda soon rebelled against it. His work El pastor clásico (1835) parodies neoclassical eclogues, presenting a false and rigid pastoral world. His Lírica anthology features the Canciones group, giving voice to marginalized figures like the beggar and the executioner. His most famous poem is La canción del pirata. In his later years, Espronceda composed longer poems like El estudiante de Salamanca.
Rosalía de Castro
Rosalía de Castro is a central figure of the Rexurdimento, a cultural movement revitalizing Galician literature in the late 19th century. She also made significant contributions to Castilian Romantic poetry with works like En las orillas del Sar, which presents her vision of love, disappointment, and death, using simple language reminiscent of Bécquer.
Costumbrismo (Articles of Manners)
Costumbrismo characterizes the Romantic period, describing quaint and typical customs seen as distinctly Spanish. Larra transformed this genre, using it to satirize national issues like cronyism, hypocrisy, and bad taste.
Legends
Legends, a narrative subgenre characteristic of Romanticism, emerged when authors developed folk legends in verse or prose, giving them literary treatment.
Romantic Drama
Romantic drama is distinguished by:
- Mixing elements previously considered incompatible, like prose and verse, comedy and tragedy.
- Disregarding Aristotelian unities of action. Each act can unfold in a different place, with years passing between them.
- Prioritizing emotional impact over moral messages.
- Featuring a typical protagonist: a brave, handsome knight challenging societal norms, driven by love or pride.
Notable Spanish Romantic dramatists include the Duke of Rivas, author of Don Álvaro o la fuerza del sino, and José Zorrilla, author of Don Juan Tenorio.