Romanticism: A Literary and Artistic Movement
Romanticism in Europe
Historical Context
With the rise of the bourgeoisie and Napoleon’s expansionist policies, the ideals of the French Revolution (liberty, equality, fraternity) spread throughout Europe. However, this expansion triggered a reaction from traditional monarchies and values (religion, throne, home), leading to an upsurge in nationalist sentiments as countries reaffirmed their historical identities against the perceived invader.
It is within this environment that Romanticism emerged in Europe during the first half of the 19th century.
Characteristics of Romanticism
As an artistic and literary movement, Romanticism is characterized by:
Reaction against Neoclassicism
Romanticism reacted against the excesses of the Neoclassical period, rejecting the absolute dominion of reason, its strict rules and regulations in arts and education, and its emphasis on moderation and “good taste.”
Individualism and Subjectivism
Instead, Romanticism exalted individualism, subjectivism, and the “self.” It championed the absolute freedom of the artist and the importance of inspiration. Rules and conventions were rejected, leading to a blurring of genre boundaries: verse and prose, comedy and tragedy, the sublime and the grotesque could all coexist within the same work.
Idealism and Disillusionment
Romantics rejected the mundane reality that clashed with their ideals. They experienced a sense of restlessness, incompleteness, and an “unhappy consciousness” (Hegel). This disillusionment with the world led to a desire to escape to exotic or “romantic” locales (like the Far East) or to idealized historical periods, such as the Middle Ages, which were seen as less pragmatic and more chivalrous. Sometimes, this disillusionment manifested as rebellion against the establishment, expressed through the exaltation of marginalized characters like pirates or beggars, who symbolized freedom. In extreme cases, it could even lead to suicide, as exemplified by literary figures like Goethe’s Werther or real-life individuals like Larra.
Transcendentalism
Romantics believed that the meaning of life was not the pursuit of worldly happiness or material possessions but rather a transcendent, infinite, and unattainable ideal. This constant clash between ideals and reality caused profound disappointment.
Nature as a Reflection of Emotions
Romantics preferred untamed and powerful aspects of nature (vast oceans, raging storms, the mysterious night) that dwarfed the individual, highlighting their vulnerability to fate. Nature often mirrored the artist’s inner turmoil and suffering, with frequent depictions of moonlit or desolate landscapes and ruins.
Nationalism
The emphasis on individual uniqueness extended to a celebration of the individuality of nations, their unique characteristics, customs, and languages, leading to a surge in nationalism.
Two Types of Romanticism
In essence, Romanticism always championed individual liberty and expressed dissatisfaction with the present. This dissatisfaction was interpreted in two ways:
Traditional Romanticism: Aimed to restore the values of the Old Regime, rejecting the rationalist ideals of the Enlightenment.
Liberal or Revolutionary Romanticism: Sought to further develop the new values of equality, human rights, and progress that were perceived as inadequately implemented by the new regimes.
Romanticism in Spain
Delayed Arrival
Although Spain was considered a romantic country par excellence in Europe due to its traditions, landscapes, and popular literature, Romanticism arrived late and somewhat superficially due to the political climate under Ferdinand VII’s absolutist rule. Many liberals were forced into exile and only returned after his death in 1833, bringing with them the Romantic ideas they had encountered in Europe. Before this, there were some early Romantic expressions, such as the writings of Nicolás Böhl de Faber (father of Fernán Caballero) defending Spanish Baroque theater or articles in the Barcelona-based journal El Europeo.
Genres
Prose
In prose, the historical novel flourished, often featuring legendary themes set in the Middle Ages, following the model of Walter Scott. Newspaper articles also gained prominence, ranging from serious political and literary commentary (like those by Larra) to lighter, costumbrista pieces that depicted everyday life and popular characters in a friendly tone, foreshadowing Realism (e.g., Ramón de Mesonero Romanos).
Theater
Romantic theater disregarded classical rules. Its themes revolved around destiny, honor, and often impossible or tragic love. It aimed to evoke strong emotions rather than simply educate or entertain. Notable playwrights include the Duke of Rivas (Don Álvaro o la fuerza del sino), Antonio García Gutiérrez (El trovador), Juan Eugenio Hartzenbusch (Los amantes de Teruel), and José Zorrilla (Don Juan Tenorio).
Poetry
Poetry proved to be the genre that best embodied the characteristics of Romanticism, allowing for the expression of the poet’s aspirations and frustrations. Romantic poets considered themselves free from rules, writing solely based on inspiration. They prioritized sincerity and emotional intensity over formal perfection. They employed dramatic and powerful language, strong rhythms suitable for recitation, and a vehement tone with frequent exclamations and hyperbole. Romantic poems were often characterized by varied meter and stanza structure, reviving forgotten forms like the ballad and inventing new ones.
The quality of Romantic poetry could be uneven, ranging from brilliant lyrical insights to moments of vulgarity or awkwardness. Drama and intensity were dominant, as poets consciously departed from the “good taste” of the previous century, leading to caricatures of them as “whiners” and “disheveled.”
The main themes of Romantic poetry were love (often impossible, stormy, or fatal), the life force, dissatisfaction with life, protest, and rebellion. These themes were often explored in settings that mirrored these emotions: night, ruins, cemeteries, storms, etc.
Periods of Spanish Romanticism
First Period
The first period of Spanish Romanticism exhibited the characteristics described above. Its main representatives were José de Espronceda (El estudiante de Salamanca, El diablo mundo), the Duke of Rivas (historical romances), and José Zorrilla (Spanish legends and traditions).
Second Period (Post-Romanticism)
The second period, after 1850, coincided with the rise of Realism. Poetry became more moderate in its tone and adopted a more prosaic style, as seen in the work of Ramón de Campoamor. Post-Romantic lyricism favored an intimate tone, shorter poems, simpler forms with a tendency towards assonance, and a restrained use of rhetorical devices (meant to be read quietly rather than recited). Notable poets of this period include Rosalía de Castro (Follas novas, En las orillas del Sar) and Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer (Rimas).