Romanticism: A Literary and Cultural Movement in 19th Century Europe
Romanticism
Romanticism was an artistic and cultural movement that exerted a great influence on various forms of art and culture in Europe (especially literature, music, and painting) from the late 18th to the mid-19th century. The term is strongly linked with the fall of Napoleon after his defeat at Waterloo. On the death of Spanish absolutist King Ferdinand VII (1833), a group of liberal politicians and intellectuals returned to Spain and began publishing a literary magazine in Madrid with a romantic orientation, called The European, in which they featured works by authors like Mariano José de Larra.
Origin of the Romantic Movement
Romanticism was not only a literary renewal; it also aimed to create a new individual, capable of considering the problems of their existence and the world from a more emotional and subjective perspective. The emergence of Romanticism is linked to three types of factors: political (liberalism, nationalism), socioeconomic (power of the bourgeoisie), and cultural (victory of German Idealism in philosophy, spearheaded by Hegel).
General Characteristics of Romanticism
1. The Exaltation of the Self (Individualism)
The romantic individual believes that reality is not found outside the genuine human being but within their own mind, a reality not perceived by the senses. This is the origin of the cult of the individual, which could lead to egocentrism.
2. The Search for the Absolute
As a result of the overvaluation of the self, the romantic artist clashes with reality, which they idealize. The result of this process was almost always disappointment and frustration, leading to what is called the “evil of the century,” a sort of sickly sentimentality that became fashionable.
3. The Feeling of Rebellion and Freedom
As a result of this sense of rebellion, artists sought to portray characters who symbolize rebellion against the establishment: Don Juan Tenorio, the student of Salamanca, Frankenstein, etc.
4. Evasion
a) Escape in Space: Romantics created a new concept of nature, understood as dynamic and onto which authors projected their own feelings.
b) Escape in Time: The past, and the Middle Ages in particular, strongly attracted romantics due to the distance of time and the perceived mystery of those centuries.
c) Evasion in Mystery: Romanticism was always open to enigma, mystery, and the unknown.
d) Evasion in the Dream World: Artists found in dreams the possibility of bypassing ordinary reality and traveling through a world full of mystery, uncertainty, and romantic beauty. The dream became a true “poetic state” through which the author could access what was inaccessible in the waking state.
e) Escape Through Death: Suicide was a recurrent theme, appearing both in reality (Larra) and fiction (Don Alvaro, Werther).
4. The Themes of Romanticism
The main themes addressed in Romantic literature are:
a) Love: Sometimes depicted as sentimental love, with a focus on sadness and melancholy, considering it an unattainable ideal (Bécquer). At other times, love is portrayed as a sweeping and uncontrolled passion, often linked to rebellion against society, causing stress and unhappiness, which often culminate in tragedy or death (Don Alvaro, Don Juan).
b) Death: Set in characteristic environments (cemeteries, ruins, tombs), death was a familiar feeling for the romantic.
c) Political and Social Concern: Writers tried to bring freedom to all spheres of human life: demanding the right to free expression of thought in politics, defending the freedom of the people to revolt against absolutism in the social sphere, and seeking the abolition of rules that inhibited creative freedom in the literary sphere.
d) Historical and Legendary Themes: Spanish Romanticism was particularly interested in the Middle Ages. It drew upon various motifs and characters (Gothic kings, Arabs, Spaniards).
e) Customs and Folklore: Romantic artists had a strong regional consciousness and showed great interest in the traditions and customs of the places they lived.
f) Religion: God, according to the thinking of the time, was often presented as detached and insensitive to human problems.
6. Main Literary Genres of Prose
Several major genres stand out:
1. Historical Novel: The birth of this genre is explained by the romantic interest in the past, especially the Middle Ages.
2. Costumbrismo: This is the most important manifestation of Spanish Romantic prose and served as a basis for future realistic literature. Costumbrismo is the result of concern for the popular and the folk. It includes:
a. The cuadro de costumbres, which refers to the picturesque description of situations rather than people (Mesonero Romanos’ Escenas Matritenses, Estébanez Calderón’s Escenas Andaluzas).
b. The articulo de costumbres, which usually contains a more critical and reflective intention (Larra’s Artículos).
3. Prose Legend: This genre reflects the Romantic taste for mystery and strong sentiment (Bécquer’s Leyendas).
Theater
The main theatrical genre of the period was the drama, characterized by:
a) Elimination of classical theatrical rules (the three unities).
b) Use of verse and the mixture of verse and prose.
c) Introduction of grand scenic effects.
d) Focus on historical, legendary, and imaginative aspects.
Poetry
Romantic poetry was characterized by:
a) Its dominance over other literary forms, as it was considered the ideal vehicle for expressing feelings.
b) Its “Platonic” point of view, regarding poetry as a form of knowledge and the poet as the discoverer of worlds and realities hidden from others.
In Spanish poetry of the time, we find two key trends:
– Firstly, a poetry of legendary and historical character with a refined and rhetorical style, enriched with formal techniques (Rivas, Espronceda, Zorrilla).
– Secondly, a lyrical and sentimental poetry, more subjective and intimate, with a more sober style (Bécquer and Rosalía de Castro).
7. Major Romantic Writers
Mariano José de Larra (Madrid 1809-1837)
Larra’s importance in Spanish literature lies in his newspaper articles. Some titles that were particularly successful are Vuelva usted mañana, Casarse pronto y mal, El castellano viejo, etc.
Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer (Seville 1836 – Madrid 1870)
Although he composed works in different genres (prose: Leyendas, Cartas desde mi celda, etc.), his fame is due to a small collection of poems called Rimas.