Romanticism and Realism in 19th-Century Literature
Romanticism
Development and Origins
Romanticism developed during the first half of the 19th century, with roots in the late 18th century. It was a movement that exalted feelings and emotions and their impact on all aspects of life. Romanticists championed individual freedom and expressed dissatisfaction with societal constraints. New laws were drafted that recognized the rights of individuals and peoples to express themselves and embrace their identities.
Society and Culture in the 19th Century
The 19th century was marked by the legacy of the French Revolution (1789) and the rise of industrialization, which shaped European political thought and social structures. There was a clash between absolutism and liberalism, driven by the bourgeoisie’s growing economic and political power. With the bourgeoisie’s rise, the liberal, egalitarian, and fraternal ideals of the French Revolution spread, forming the foundation of liberalism.
Napoleon’s expansionist policies led to opposition from monarchies and fueled an aggressive form of nationalism. Romanticism expressed dissatisfaction through both traditionalist and revolutionary perspectives. Traditionalist Romantics sought a return to religious and traditional values (e.g., Zorrilla, Bécquer, Saavedra). Conversely, early Romantic thinkers championed the French Revolution, progress, liberalism, freedom, and human rights (e.g., Lord Byron, Espronceda, José de Larra).
Romantic Aesthetics
Individualism: Romantic artists rebelled against anything that hindered their personal expression. They rejected the limitations imposed by the world, finding solace in evasion and rebellion. Freedom became the cornerstone of Romantic thought.
Nature: The landscape served as a reflection of the author’s mood and emotions.
Nationalism: Romantics celebrated the unique characteristics of their countries and cultures.
Romantic Literature
Romantic literature encouraged the use of diverse literary languages, reflecting an interest in the unique literary expressions of each country or region. This led to a resurgence of Galician, Catalan, and Basque literature.
Romantics rejected Neoclassical rules, favoring a style that reflected the author’s emotions. This often resulted in an intense and sentimental style.
Literary Genres
The lyric and the drama were revitalized, as they aligned with the Romantic spirit’s emphasis on intimacy and emotional expression. Romantics also embraced the freedom to combine or create new genres.
Romantic Poetry
Romantic poets embraced the movement’s core themes: rejection of societal constraints, a yearning for freedom, and an exaltation of nature and emotions. They broke free from Neoclassical forms, experimenting with various lines and stanzas within a single work.
In Spain, Romantic poetry achieved notable success. We can distinguish between intimate lyrical poetry (e.g., Bécquer) and narrative poetry (e.g., Espronceda).
José de Espronceda (1808-1842)
Life: Espronceda, a quintessential Romantic figure, was born in Badajoz. He endured imprisonment and exile for his opposition to absolutism. He was deeply involved in the most radical faction of liberalism and died from a throat infection.
Work: Although he also wrote novels and dramas, his early work, such as the Neoclassical “Pelayo,” reflected his youthful training. During his exile, he encountered English Romanticism, evident in works like “Hymn to the Sun” and “Oscar and Malvina.” His Romantic poetry developed in Madrid, where he created intensely personal compositions exploring various themes. Some poems focused on social outcasts, such as “Pirate’s Song.” Others lamented his lost youth (“To a Jarifa in an Orgy”) or expressed his political ideals (“The Cossack’s Crowning”). His most important works are “El Estudiante de Salamanca” and “The Devil World.”
Style: Espronceda’s style is characterized by its pomp and emphasis, reflecting his passionate temperament. His poetry is rich in vivid imagery, powerful contrasts, and evocative musicality.
Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer (1836-1870)
Life: Bécquer was orphaned as a child in Seville. At 18, he moved to Madrid seeking literary success. By 21, he was struggling with illness and poverty, writing articles for newspapers. On July 22, 1861, he married Casta Esteban, the inspiration for his “Rhymes.” They had two children but later separated. Bécquer fell ill and died shortly before his 40th birthday.
Work: His lyrical poetry is collected in “Rhymes.” He also wrote prose poetry in “Legends,” which are fantastical stories set in the Middle Ages, expressing his intimate feelings and emotions. “The Mountain of the Spirits” is another notable work. His “Letters from My Cell” are also of interest.
Rhymes: Bécquer’s “Rhymes” consist of 76 poems with varied rhyme schemes and assonance. They explore themes of love, longing, happiness, disappointment, despair, loneliness, pain, and death.
Features: Bécquer’s poetry is characterized by its intimate evocation of feelings and memories. It is subjective and expressed with simplicity and naturalness. His short, concise poems draw inspiration from German Romantic poetry and Andalusian folk songs. His work paved the way for contemporary poetry.
Rosalía de Castro (1837-1885)
Rosalía de Castro’s “On the Banks of the Sar” stands out as a remarkable collection of lyrical poetry. Her works in Galician became a symbol of the Galician literary revival (Rexurdimiento). Her personal style is simple and direct, exploring themes of love, loneliness, sadness, social injustice, and nature. She employs various combinations of assonance, meter, and verse forms. Alongside Bécquer, she is considered one of the most important lyrical poets of the second half of the 19th century.
Literary Realism
Emergence and Characteristics
Literary realism emerged in the second half of the 19th century, replacing Romantic imagination with observation. It aimed to portray reality as it was. Naturalism, a more extreme form of realism, developed later in the century.
Socially, this period was characterized by the growth of industrialization, leading to revolutionary workers’ movements (e.g., the 1848 revolutions and the publication of the Communist Manifesto by Marx and Engels). The bourgeoisie consolidated its power, and governments became increasingly conservative. Positivism, a philosophy emphasizing knowledge based on experience and scientific observation, gained prominence. Realist and naturalist art reflected these social changes and conflicts.
Key Features of Realism and Naturalism
Realism:
- Reflects social reality through observation.
- Aims to make art a chronicle of social and human behavior.
- Focuses on the bourgeoisie as its primary subject.
Naturalism:
- Builds upon realism with a deterministic view of reality.
- Employs methods of experimental science.
- Applies determinism and often depicts sordid environments and characters shaped by their heredity and environment.
Literature of Realism and Naturalism
Literature during this period served as a mirror reflecting contemporary life. The focus was on reality, and the style tended towards simplicity and the use of colloquial language.
Literary Genres
Fiction (novels and short stories) flourished during this period. Naturalism also led to a renewal of European theater, both in its themes and presentation.
Poetry
Poetry became less prominent due to the descriptive nature of realism and naturalism. The lyrical style became more prosaic, focusing on everyday topics. It could also incorporate reflections and aphorisms that conveyed moral or civic messages. Circumstantial poetry, which dealt with specific events or situations, was also common.