Rousseau’s Philosophy: Individualism, Society, and the General Will
Rousseau’s Thought
Rousseau shared many of the concerns of his contemporaries, particularly the search for human happiness and liberty. His criticisms were mainly directed towards the optimistic and enlightened individualism of the time. Contrary to the optimism of the Enlightenment thinkers, Rousseau believed that science and intelligence did not necessarily lead to human development. Instead, he argued that “man is a depraved animal.” For him, feelings were more important than reason in human morality, and science could only corrupt the material world. Technological advancements only increased competitiveness and selfishness.
Critique of Science and Arts
In his Discourse on the Sciences and the Arts, Rousseau argued that science, arts, and philosophy were the products of human idleness and the desire to stand out. They fostered vanity, envy, and human weakness, leading to a frenzied race for progress and a false appearance of freedom, where people were actually slaves to social order, luxury, and social position. He aimed to expose the contradictions within the emerging bourgeois society.
Against Individualism
Contrary to the individualism of the French Enlightenment, influenced by Locke, Rousseau questioned the idea that individual rights, especially property rights, were the most important. Instead, influenced by Plato, he believed that community life was essential for protecting individuals from their own desires and selfishness. Society was the most important factor in moral development. However, he observed that contemporary society, organized around individualistic values, had led to inequality and moral corruption. This led him to develop the concept of the state of nature.
The State of Nature
How can we differentiate between natural and artificial man? What is the natural state of man? For Rousseau, humans in their natural state were driven by self-love and the desire for self-preservation, along with a natural aversion to the suffering of others. This instinctive human was devoid of reason and language, but possessed the potential for self-improvement. In this state, there was no vice or virtue, and the only differences between individuals were age, strength, and health.
From Nature to Society
It is uncertain whether this state ever existed. It is a hypothesis. The increase in population led to the formation of associations, initially without hierarchies, but with the advent of agriculture and private property, differences arose. This led to a division between the haves and have-nots, and the dependence on work, which resulted in conflicts and the establishment of a social order through a contract between the rich and the poor. This contract was the origin of the state. For Rousseau, the defense of individual rights led to a disordered society.
The Social Contract
To critique contemporary society, Rousseau did not advocate a return to the original state of nature, which he considered impossible. Instead, he sought to question the basis of a legitimate society, which he explored in his Social Contract (1762). In this work, Rousseau proposed a voluntary association of individuals who unite to overcome the difficulties of survival. This association forms a unique social body where members depend only on the collective and not on each other. Individuals surrender their rights to this new community, creating a legitimate republic of citizens. In this original pact, according to Rousseau, “the individual loses his natural liberty and the unlimited right to everything he can reach, and gains civil liberty and property rights.” In this way, natural man becomes a citizen, a member of a moral body. The question arises: why should an isolated individual renounce all his liberty to give it to the community? Rousseau’s answer is that, in reality, man does not renounce his liberty, but rather transforms it into civil or social liberty, because he gives himself to the community, which is a part of himself. This is related to the concept of the general will.
The General Will
The general will is the collective interest that constitutes the community. It is the will of the people themselves, and therefore, only they can establish laws. The legitimacy of popular sovereignty is derived from the rejection of divine right. Representative democracy is rejected because only the people can represent themselves. The sovereign is the people, and the government is simply the executor of the laws. Rousseau believed that small, self-governing communities were the ideal model for democratic life.