Rousseau’s Philosophy: Nature, Society, and the Social Contract
Rousseau and the Enlightenment
Rousseau, a prominent figure of the Enlightenment, held views that diverged from his contemporaries. While the Enlightenment emphasized progress through reason and science, Rousseau critiqued this notion.
Rousseau’s Critique of Progress
Unlike his peers, Rousseau argued that science and arts corrupt humanity, fostering artificial societies marked by inequality and depraved passions. He believed these advancements led to a dependence on others and a focus on appearances, undermining true human nature.
The State of Nature vs. Marital Status
Rousseau distinguished between the marital status (organized society) and the hypothetical state of nature. The latter represents humanity before societal corruption, governed by natural rights.
Natural vs. Political Inequality
In the state of nature, humans are fundamentally equal, with differences arising only from natural inequalities (age, health, strength). Political inequality (wealth, status) is a product of societal conventions.
Principles of the State of Nature
Humans in the state of nature are driven by:
- Self-preservation
- Pity or compassion
Unique human traits are:
- Freedom (ability to choose)
- Perfectibility (capacity for self-improvement)
These traits lead humans to depart from the state of nature, forming societies that corrupt their inherent goodness.
The Origin of Society and Inequality
Humans initially united for mutual benefit, developing social bonds. However, the emergence of private property introduced rivalry and inequality, leading to a ‘war of all against all.’ This necessitated governments and laws, which unfortunately perpetuated injustice and curtailed freedom.
Rousseau’s Proposal: The Social Contract
Rousseau proposed reforming society through a social contract, an agreement where individuals submit to the general will, preserving both societal advantages and natural rights.
The General Will and Sovereignty
The general will aims at the common good, established through a partnership of equals. It is not the will of the majority, unanimity, or the sum of individual desires. Sovereignty resides in the people, and it is inalienable and indivisible. Laws, as expressions of the general will, are sacred, and individuals obeying them are essentially obeying themselves.
Civil Society and Freedom
While the state of nature is ideal, its return is impossible. The alternative is a civil society where individuals lose some natural advantages but gain civil liberties, freedom, moral equality, and property rights. Rousseau’s vision of a society based on the general will and safeguarding individual freedom makes him a foundational democratic theorist.
Clarifications on the General Will
The general will should not be confused with:
- The will of the majority: This can lead to laws that harm specific individuals.
- Unanimity: Achieving universal agreement on laws is impractical.
- The will of all: This is merely the sum of individual desires, not the common good.