Russian Empire & Revolutions: 1905-1917
The Russian Empire in the Early 20th Century
In the early 20th century, the Russian Empire spanned over 20 million square kilometers and was inhabited by a diverse mixture of ethnicities and cultures. Russians, the largest ethnic group, made up 40% of the population. The Russian language, Orthodox religion, and administration were imposed on other peoples. Tsar Nicholas II, a member of the Romanov family, had ruled all Russian peoples since 1894. Major cities included Moscow and St. Petersburg, which would later be renamed Petrograd and Leningrad after the Bolshevik Revolution.
Russia was an economically backward country that relied heavily on cereal farming, employing 80% of the population. Peasants were only freed from serfdom in 1861. Many remained impoverished or worked for large landowners known as kulaks.
After 1870, industrialization began with the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway. Huge factories, coal and iron mines, and shipyards emerged in Ukraine, the Urals, the Caucasus, and the cities of Moscow and St. Petersburg. This led to the rise of a very combative working class.
Background of the Russian Revolutions
The Revolution of 1905
This first revolution was a result of Russia’s defeat in the Russo-Japanese War. The military disaster caused general discontent, culminating in a peaceful demonstration in St. Petersburg that was severely repressed by the army. This event became known as “Bloody Sunday.” It triggered a series of strikes demanding political changes. Workers organized into soviets, or assemblies, represented by delegates from factories. Tsar Nicholas II promised the establishment of a Duma, or legislative assembly, with limited powers.
Political Groups
- Social Revolutionaries: Advocated for land redistribution among farmers.
- Social Democrats: A political group with Marxist ideology, supporting industrial workers. They were divided into two parties:
- Bolsheviks: Led by Lenin, they sought a Marxist revolution through a centralized and disciplined party.
- Mensheviks: Favored a more open party and democratization of the country before the revolution.
The Revolution of February 1917
The problems generated by World War I led to a series of strikes during the winter of 1916-17, demanding Russia’s withdrawal from the war. In February, a Petrograd Soviet of workers, led by Mensheviks and Social Revolutionaries, was formed.
The Duma established a provisional government, forcing Tsar Nicholas II to abdicate. A new government, headed by the moderate socialist Kerensky, was formed. Its objective was to create a constituent assembly and withdraw Russia from the war.
The Arrival of the Bolsheviks
Lenin, exiled in Germany after the 1905 Revolution, returned in April 1917 and proclaimed his April Theses, an action program that included:
- Rejection of the provisional government and its decision to continue the war.
- Control of production and distribution by the Soviets.
- Transformation of the bourgeois republic into a republic of Soviets of workers and peasants.
In October 1917, Lenin convinced his party that it was time for an armed rebellion against Kerensky’s government. The Bolsheviks occupied strategic locations in Petrograd. Kerensky was forced to flee, and his ministers were detained.