Russian Revolution: Fall of Tsarism & Rise of the USSR
Russia Under the Last Tsar
In the early twentieth century, Russia maintained an absolute monarchy. The Tsar, the monarch, concentrated the supreme power of the state in his hands. He exercised this power without limit and was supported by the nobility in governing. Although a parliament called the Duma existed, its powers were very limited, as the Tsar could convene or dissolve it at will. There were no political freedoms, and opponents were persecuted by the political police. The economy remained largely agrarian, although industrialization had already begun. The installation of some heavy industry and railway construction swelled the worker population, but the business bourgeoisie remained relatively small. Since the late nineteenth century, several political forces opposed Tsarism. These forces represented different social groups and political ideas:
- Bourgeois parties
- Peasant groups
- Revolutionary workers’ parties, divided into two main factions:
- The Mensheviks (moderate)
- The Bolsheviks (radical)
The 1905 Revolution
The Tsar’s army was defeated by Japanese troops in the Russo-Japanese War, spurred by Russia’s expansionist attempts in Asia. Riots broke out, fueled by discontent over the defeat and the ongoing economic crisis. The revolution culminated on a day when popular masses marched to the Winter Palace, the Tsar’s residence, to present their requests. The demonstrators were not trying to overthrow the Tsar but aimed to report governmental failures and petition for political reforms. However, the authorities responded with violent repression, resulting in many deaths and injuries. This event became known as Bloody Sunday.
The February Revolution of 1917
In 1914, Russia entered the First World War. Neither the economy nor the military were prepared for the conflict. Military defeats and severe shortages on the home front created major unrest, leading to widespread strikes and demonstrations. The revolution began in February 1917 with worker demonstrations in St. Petersburg (Petrograd). This escalated into a general strike, accompanied by uprisings in the military barracks where troops refused orders to shoot demonstrators. A Provisional Government was formed, initially moderated but later led by Alexander Kerensky. This government intended to introduce a liberal political system. Facing mounting pressure, the Tsar was forced to abdicate.
The October Revolution of 1917
Social and political instability could not be halted by the Provisional Government. It had decided to continue the war, and defeats continued to mount. Lenin, leader of the Bolsheviks, returned from exile in April 1917. His April Theses established the Bolshevik program:
- Withdrawal from the war
- Redistribution of land to peasants
- Control of factories by workers’ committees
- Autonomy for nationalities
- Transfer of power (“All power”) to the Soviets (workers’ and soldiers’ councils)
In October, the Bolsheviks moved to overthrow the Provisional Government. On the night of October 24th (Old Style calendar), Soviets controlled by the Bolsheviks seized strategic points in the capital, Petrograd. The fall of the Provisional Government was consummated following the assault on the Winter Palace. The new Bolshevik government immediately issued decrees, including withdrawing Russia from the war and redistributing land to poor peasants without compensation for former landowners.
War Communism
The country descended into civil war, fought between two main camps: counter-revolutionaries (supporters of the old regime and others opposed to the Bolsheviks), who formed the White Army, and the Bolsheviks, who created the Red Army. The counter-revolutionaries (Whites) received support from foreign powers (including Britain, France, the USA, and Japan), who opposed the new Bolshevik regime, fearing the revolution might spread to their own countries.
The New Economic Policy (NEP)
The Revolution had survived the Civil War, but at the cost of enormous material and human losses. In 1921, Lenin established the New Economic Policy (NEP) to rebuild the battered economy. Farmers were allowed to grow and sell produce freely after paying a tax. However, the state retained control over major industries (‘the commanding heights’): transport, foreign trade, banking, and large enterprises. These measures led to economic recovery. However, it also allowed private traders (Nepmen) and wealthier peasants (kulaks) to prosper, leading to the resurgence of a form of bourgeoisie. This caused severe social strains and sparked broad debate within the Communist Party.
Formation of the USSR
In 1922, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was formally established. It was a federation of republics, whose number later expanded. This created a multinational, multiethnic state, covering much of the territory of the former Tsarist empire. A Constitution was drawn up (formally adopted in 1924) outlining the political system of the new state. Nominally, the constituent republics had autonomy in internal affairs, such as judicial organization, education, health, and the use of local languages and customs. The supreme legislative body was the Supreme Soviet. It appointed the Presidium, whose chairman served as the collective Head of State, and the Council of People’s Commissars (Sovnarkom), which functioned as the government.