Russian Revolution: From Tsar to USSR
Movements of Opposition to the Tsar
The intelligentsia, including students and intellectuals, rejected the established political order. Populists believed socialism could be achieved without capitalism. The Russian Social Democratic Labor Party formed, with Mensheviks led by Martov advocating a liberal revolution and Bolsheviks led by Lenin urging a mass revolution. The Socialist-Revolutionary Party sought a parliamentary system. The Constitutional Democratic Party aimed for a British-style constitutional parliament.
The 1905 Revolution
The revolution began with the army’s repression of protesters in St. Petersburg, known as Bloody Sunday. Strikes, peasant land claims, and nationalist uprisings in Poland and Ukraine followed. Soviets, or councils, were created in St. Petersburg, led by Trotsky. The Tsar established the Duma (legislative assembly) with limited power and suffrage. Freedom of association and press were extended, along with voting rights. Lenin went into exile.
The February Revolution
In February 1917, a general strike in Petrograd led to Nicholas II’s abdication. A provisional government under Lvov was formed, granting amnesty and liberties. The Petrograd Soviet of workers and soldiers emerged as a parallel power, creating a duality of power.
The October Revolution
Social unrest grew against the provisional government. Lenin’s April Theses called for power to the Soviets. After a failed offensive against the Germans, Lenin fled to Finland. Kerensky became president. Kornilov’s attempted coup failed, leading to the Bolshevik insurrection planned by Lenin and Trotsky. The Bolshevik militia seized key points in Petrograd, and the Second Congress of Soviets supported the uprising.
The First Bolshevik Government
The Council of People’s Commissars was formed, led by Lenin, with Stalin as Minister of Nationalities and Trotsky as Minister of Foreign Affairs. Key decrees included:
- Decree on Peace: Led to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.
- Decree on Land: Legalized land occupation and division.
- Decree on Industrial Firms: Gave workers’ soviets control of factories.
- Decree of Nationalities: Recognized the equality and sovereignty of Russia’s peoples.
Revolutionaries controlled Moscow by November 2, and the revolution spread.
The Civil War
Western states intervened, aiding the anti-Bolshevik White Army. The Bolsheviks organized the Red Army, led by Trotsky. The Red Army won in 1921, aided by divisions within the White Army and peasant support.
The Organization of the Soviet State
The Bolsheviks dissolved the Assembly after unfavorable election results. Power was centralized under the Communist Party. The Marxist concept of the dictatorship of the proletariat was implemented. Russia became the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic in 1918. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was formed, including Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, and Transcaucasia. A new constitution was adopted in 1924, increasing the Communist Party’s power.
The Third International
The Russian Revolution inspired labor movements globally. The Third International, chaired by Zinoviev, aimed to promote the labor movement. Two trends emerged: Socialists advocating capitalist reform and parliamentary democracy, and Communists.
The New Economic Policy (NEP)
Proposed by Lenin and adopted in 1921, the NEP aimed to recover agricultural production and create a mixed economy. Small businesses could market products, while the state controlled major industries. Kulaks in the countryside and private entrepreneurs in cities became significant sectors.