Russian Revolution, Totalitarianism, and Interwar Period (1917-1939)
Russian Revolution and Aftermath
Tsarist Regime’s Decline
In the late 19th century, the Tsars partially abolished serfdom. However, Russian expansionism led to conflicts such as the Russo-Japanese War, resulting in a Russian defeat in 1905 and widespread protests. Tsar Nicholas II authorized the Duma’s formation but largely ignored it. World War I defeats further fueled discontent, culminating in the February and October Revolutions of 1917, overthrowing the Tsar.
Rise of the Bolsheviks
A provisional government was established, but the Bolsheviks, led by Lenin and Trotsky, seized power. They stormed the Winter Palace, establishing a new government called the Council of People’s Commissars and initiating communist rule.
Russian Civil War and the USSR
Russia withdrew from World War I in 1918 with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. The Russian Civil War (1918-1920) ensued between the Whites (Tsarists) and the Reds (Bolsheviks). The Reds emerged victorious in 1922, establishing the USSR. The 1924 constitution outlined a federal state dominated by Russia, a one-party system under the Communist Party, and a Supreme Soviet as the legislative body.
The New Economic Policy (NEP) temporarily reintroduced capitalist elements to revive the economy.
Lenin and Stalin
Lenin, a follower of Marx, led the October Revolution and founded the USSR and the Russian Communist Party. Stalin, his successor, initiated purges within the Communist Party, resulting in numerous deaths.
Interwar Period (1919-1929)
Democracies and their Challenges
Germany: The Weimar Republic faced economic hardship, war reparations, hyperinflation, and political instability due to extremist parties.
France and UK: Both nations experienced a difficult transition from war to peace, with high unemployment and political instability. The UK granted Irish independence and transformed the British Empire into the Commonwealth.
US: The US benefited significantly from the war, experiencing an economic boom fueled by protectionist trade policies and becoming a global power.
League of Nations
Established after World War I to maintain peace, the League of Nations faced challenges: dominance by France and the UK, the veto power, and the absence of major powers like the US and initially the USSR. Despite these limitations, it contributed to international peace and collective security.
Rise of Totalitarianism
Totalitarian regimes, opposing liberal democracy, socialism, communism, and labor movements, employed strategies to manipulate populations. These included charismatic leadership, social hierarchies, militarism, and nationalism.
Italian Fascism
Mussolini established a totalitarian state in 1922, characterized by absolute power, aggressive foreign policy, and corporatism.
Nazi Totalitarianism
Amidst the economic crisis, Hitler rose to power in 1933, establishing the Third Reich. His regime featured political control through the Nazi party, denouncement of the Treaty of Versailles, autarkic economic policies, and a natalist social policy.
Culture and Art
Science and Thought
Existentialism: Philosophers like Heidegger and Sartre explored themes of anguish and the search for meaning.
Vitalism: Nietzsche’s philosophy emphasized the concept of the “superman.”
Scientific advancements included Einstein’s theory of relativity, developments in electronics, and progress in biology and medicine.
Mass Culture and Social Movements
Mass culture emerged with the development of media like radio and film. Social movements, such as the women’s suffrage movement, gained momentum.
Art
Architecture: Le Corbusier, the Bauhaus school, and Frank Lloyd Wright were prominent figures.
Sculpture: Abstraction and new materials were embraced by artists like Brancusi and Moore.
Painting: Expressionism, Dadaism, Surrealism, and abstract art flourished.
Cinema: Chaplin’s films offered social and political commentary, while Lang, Murnau, and Buñuel explored expressionism and surrealism.