Russian Revolutions: 1905 and February 1917 Analysis
The 1905 Revolution: A Triple Political Crisis
The Revolution of 1905 in Russia stemmed from a triple political malaise at the beginning of the 20th century:
- Discontent among the peasantry due to unfulfilled agrarian reforms.
- Disappointment, unemployment, and misery among the industrial proletariat.
- The aspirations of minority liberal and student sectors for a political regime similar to Western models.
Russia’s defeat by Japan in 1904-1905 exposed the Tsarist regime’s weaknesses, unleashing a wave of protests against the autocracy. Strikes, such as the one on Bloody Sunday (January 9, 1905), where workers peacefully marched to the Winter Palace to deliver a manifesto outlining their grievances and demands for political freedom and trade union rights, were brutally repressed, sparking widespread outrage.
This repression led to further protests and strikes, spreading from industrial centers to the countryside. Workers and peasants united in their opposition, with notable events including the insurrection on the battleship Potemkin in Odessa and unrest at the Kronstadt naval base.
The Rise of Soviets
The 1905 Revolution saw the emergence of Soviets, or workers’ councils, as spontaneous organizations to coordinate strikes. The St. Petersburg Soviet, formed under the leadership of Trotsky, grouped workers from various factories and rural districts. These grassroots organizations played a crucial role in the revolution.
The revolution also highlighted the roles of various political factions, including the Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries in February, and the Bolsheviks in October.
The October Manifesto and its Aftermath
The October Manifesto, issued in October 1905, promised the establishment of a Duma, a legislative assembly, similar to parliaments in Western Europe. However, Tsarism’s reluctance to grant genuine legislative power to the Duma led to continued political struggle. While political parties sought a legislative chamber with real authority, the Tsar viewed it merely as a consultative body.
The introduction of a Duma elected through universal male suffrage divided the protest movement, allowing the Tsar to suppress the revolt. From 1906 to 1917, the opposition to the autocratic regime consolidated. After 1907, the electoral system was manipulated to favor the autocracy. Stolypin’s attempts to modernize agriculture failed, and Russia’s involvement in World War I further exacerbated the economic situation.
The February Revolution of 1917: Dual Power
World War I served as the catalyst for the February Revolution of 1917. The failures of the Russian army in 1915 and 1916, coupled with heavy casualties, fueled discontent. Tsar Nicholas II’s leadership was discredited by corruption and the influence of Rasputin, who was assassinated in 1916.
The harsh winter of 1917 deepened the suffering of urban and rural masses due to food shortages and economic disruption. Transportation and supply chains were paralyzed, leading to widespread strikes and demonstrations. On February 23, workers from the Putilov factories in Petrograd initiated strikes. By February 25 and 26, general strikes spread throughout Moscow, with police showing passivity and soldiers joining the popular rebellion against the war and misery.
The Petrograd Soviet and the Provisional Government
On February 27, the executive committee of the Petrograd Soviet (dominated by Mensheviks) began to channel the spontaneous revolution. The Tsarina Alexandra, hated for her German origins and her role as regent during Nicholas II’s absence at the military front, was unable to command the police and soldiers. The Progressive Bloc of the Duma selected an interim committee after the Duma was dissolved.
Initially, the Mensheviks considered the idea of seizing power, but an agreement was reached to form a Provisional Government composed of Kadet ministers and chaired by Lvov. Nicholas II, abandoned by all, abdicated on March 2. From that moment, two parallel powers existed in Russia: the Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet, which supported the government while demanding democratic reforms.