Russian Revolutions: From Tsarism to Soviet Rule
Marxist Socialism
Marxist socialism, developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, analyzed the contradictions within the capitalist system and how these lead to its destruction. For Marxists, class struggle fueled social change, with social relations arising from the means of production at each stage of human evolution. Marx called these stages “modes of production.” During his time, capitalism, characterized by the struggle between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, was developing. Marx’s most important work, Das Kapital (1865), described worker exploitation through surplus value—the difference between the value produced by labor and the wages paid for it. This formed the basis of his critique of capitalism. Marxist socialism postulated the seizure of power by the proletariat, replacing the capitalist system with a classless society without private property, and transforming the bourgeois state into a dictatorship of the proletariat. Marxism served as the ideological foundation for revolutionary movements in the late 19th and throughout the 20th century.
Anarchism
Anarchism, with its main theorist being the Russian aristocrat Mikhail Bakunin, advocated spontaneous rebellion against capitalist society and the state. Syndicalist doctrine emphasized action not only by the industrial proletariat but also by all oppressed groups (workers, soldiers, youth, students, farmers). This social revolution, more radical than Marx’s, aimed for the total and immediate destruction of the bourgeois social order and the state. While both anarchists and socialists pursued a communist society, their strategies differed. Anarchists sought to immediately destroy the state, while Marxists advocated a transitional phase of state control by the workers. Anarchists labeled Marxists as authoritarian and centralist, defining themselves as anti-authoritarian and communalist. These ideological differences led to confrontations within the First International (1864–1872).
Political Upheaval in Russia
Russia’s economy lagged behind Europe, and its political system rested on the Tsar’s absolute power. The regime was based on the nobility (landowners), the senior bureaucracy, and the Orthodox Church (with the Tsar as its supreme head), enforced by the secret police and censorship. During Alexander II’s reign, reforms were attempted, but the Tsar’s power and the nobility’s privileges remained untouched. One notable reform was the abolition of serfdom in 1861. After surviving assassination attempts, Alexander II’s reforms were abandoned by his successors, Alexander III and Nicholas II, who returned to political repression. Limited industrialization in the late 19th century led to the emergence of a working class and a middle class.
Opposition to Tsarism
Opposition to Tsarism arose, demanding political freedoms and socioeconomic change. In the 1870s, populists sought to raise revolutionary consciousness among peasants and advocated agrarian socialism based on collectivized land. They founded the Land and Liberty organization, engaging in propaganda and terrorist acts. After populism’s failure, some formed the terrorist group People’s Will, assassinating Alexander II in 1881. Others focused on creating a revolutionary socialist party, founding the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) in 1898, inspired by Marxism. Under Lenin’s leadership, the RSDLP split into Bolsheviks and Mensheviks in 1903. The Mensheviks believed Russia needed a bourgeois revolution and capitalist development before a socialist one, advocating an open mass party. The Bolsheviks aimed to overthrow Tsarism and establish a “democratic dictatorship of the proletariat and peasantry,” operating as a disciplined organization. By 1905, the liberal bourgeoisie formed the Constitutional Democratic Party (Cadets), seeking a constitutional monarchy with protected individual rights.
The 1905 Revolution
Economic hardship, social unrest, and the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) fueled the 1905 Revolution. Peasant uprisings and worker strikes increased. In January 1905, a peaceful protest in St. Petersburg ended in tragedy when the Tsar’s guards fired on the crowd, an event known as Bloody Sunday. The repression sparked international outrage and fueled the revolutionary movement. Peasants demanded an end to landlord abuses, workers organized strike committees and formed Soviets (councils), and clandestine political parties intensified their opposition to the war and Tsarist autocracy. Discontent spread within the army, exemplified by the Potemkin mutiny. In October 1905, the Tsar conceded, granting civil liberties and creating a representative government (the Duma).
The Failure of Reforms and the Road to 1917
The Tsar’s reforms were limited, and the Duma’s power was weak. Stolypin’s land reform, aiming to create a class of wealthy peasants (kulaks), failed. Political repression continued, and the Tsar’s authority eroded further due to scandals like Rasputin’s influence. World War I worsened the situation, with Russia allied with France and Britain against the Central Powers.
The February Revolution and the Fall of Tsarism
On February 23, 1917, a spontaneous revolution began in Petrograd. A general strike followed, and on February 26, the army joined the strikers, reorganizing the Petrograd Soviet. While initially aiming for power, the Soviet focused on democratic reforms and ending the war. The Tsar dissolved the Duma, but lacking support, he abdicated on March 2. A provisional government, headed by Prince Lvov and including Kerensky (a socialist), was formed.
From March to October: Dual Power
From March to October 1917, Russia had two parallel powers: the Provisional Government and the Soviets. The Bolsheviks opposed cooperating with the government. The Provisional Government implemented reforms: declaring amnesty, granting civil liberties, disbanding the Tsarist police, promising land redistribution, preparing elections for a constituent assembly, and recognizing the independence of Finland and Poland. However, it continued the war and postponed key reforms. The weak government faced multiple crises, with the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks advocating for immediate peace.
The Kornilov Affair
General Kornilov, the army’s commander-in-chief, attempted a coup, marching on Petrograd to establish a military dictatorship. Kerensky sought help from the Bolsheviks and the Petrograd Soviet. Bolsheviks, Mensheviks, and Socialist Revolutionaries resisted Kornilov, convincing soldiers to abandon him and join the revolution.
War Communism
During the Russian Civil War (1917-1922), War Communism was implemented. The state controlled the economy to secure resources for the war and accelerate socialist construction. Private property was abolished, industry nationalized, production militarized, money eliminated, and free trade forbidden. Harsh repression, forced grain requisitioning, trade union control, and the abolition of the right to strike were enforced.
The New Economic Policy (NEP)
In March 1921, Lenin announced the NEP, which lasted until 1928. It partially restored a market economy, allowing private property in agriculture, small industries, and businesses, and re-establishing a monetary economy. However, the state retained control over banking, heavy industry, and foreign trade. The NEP successfully addressed the economic crisis, curbing famine and restoring production. By 1927, agricultural and industrial output reached 1914 levels. However, the NEP also led to the emergence of a prosperous peasantry (kulaks) and enriched traders and businessmen.