Saint Thomas Aquinas: Historical and Philosophical Context
Saint Thomas Aquinas: Historical, Sociocultural, and Philosophical Context
The Middle Ages: A Time of Transition
During the Middle Ages, the former Roman Empire existed in three distinct sociocultural forms: the Byzantine Empire, the Western Christian kingdoms, and the Islamized territories.
In 711, Muslims entered Europe through the Iberian Peninsula but were halted in the Pyrenees at the Battle of Poitiers in 732. The Christian kingdoms fought against the Muslims, and from the 11th to the 13th centuries, they organized crusades to recover the Holy Places.
Byzantium, besieged by Islam, rebelled against the Bishops of Rome. After a first attempt in the 9th century, the schism became definitive in the 11th century under the Patriarch Michael Cerularius. The tension between the Christian East and West culminated in the capture of Constantinople by the Crusaders in 1204.
The Rise of Western Christendom
In the West, a unified Christendom emerged: a community with a shared religion (the Church) and two authorities, the Emperor (temporal) and the Pope (spiritual). The Roman Empire was restored as the Christian Empire. In 800, the Pope crowned Charlemagne, King of the Franks, as Emperor, and in the 10th century, the same occurred with Otto I, King of Germany.
The relationship between these powers was not always peaceful. Disputes over the appointment of ecclesiastical offices, the papacy’s ambiguity, and conflicts led to revolutions against Rome, such as conciliarism in the 14th century and the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century.
The 13th Century: A Period of Change
The 13th century witnessed significant changes to the feudal system. The growth of cities and the bourgeoisie led to the development of a class-based society. Great cathedrals and universities were built. The natural world gained new appreciation: Saint Francis composed the Canticle of the Creatures, and Gothic naturalism replaced Romanesque symbolism.
Mendicant orders rose to prominence, preaching the gospel of poverty in contrast to a wealthy Church.
Harmony and Control in Medieval Society
Harmony was achieved in a world where mundane realities like science, art, philosophy, and politics were valued positively but remained subordinate to divine grace. The Church played a central role in shaping culture, cultivating science and thought, and establishing universities. Cultural creations were subject to ideological control through the Inquisition, established in 1232.
The Philosophical Landscape: The Rise of Aristotelianism
In philosophy, the debate surrounding Aristotelianism took center stage. In previous centuries, figures like Saint Augustine, Eriugena, and Anselm had Christianized Plato. Now, Aristotle’s works were being rediscovered through Arabic scholars, particularly Averroes, whose writings often contradicted Christian thought. A debate ensued between the followers of Aristotle and those of Augustine. Averroism was declared heretical, and a moderate form of Aristotelianism, championed by Saint Albert the Great, Saint Bonaventure, and Saint Thomas Aquinas, ultimately prevailed.
Latin Averroism in the 13th Century
Latin Averroism, a moderate interpretation of Averroes’ philosophy, was advanced by thinkers like Saint Albert the Great, Saint Bonaventure, and Saint Thomas Aquinas. It defended three main theses:
- The Eternity of the World: The world has always existed, contrary to the idea of creation by God.
- The Mortality of the Soul: The individual soul is corruptible, while the intellect is immortal, participating in the Unmoved Mover, and is unique and universal, valid for all humankind.
- The Theory of Double Truth: Theological truth (faith) and philosophical truth (reason) are distinct. According to faith, the soul is immortal, and the world was created by God. According to reason, the soul is corruptible, and the world is eternal. Averroes sought to defend the autonomy of reason alongside faith.
Saint Thomas Aquinas disagreed with the separation of reason and faith, arguing for their fundamental compatibility.