Saint Thomas Aquinas: Historical, Sociocultural, and Philosophical Context
Background of Saint Thomas Aquinas
Historical Context
Saint Thomas Aquinas, born around 1225, lived in a Europe where, since the ninth century, there had been constant attempts to unite all territories under a single nation (empire) and the Christian religion. The latter’s heyday was supported by the Byzantine Empire, which existed during the Middle Ages after the fall of Rome to the Visigoths.
The twelfth century was the century of universities, which were part of the Church and served as important guilds of masters and apprentices, with their own institutions and privileges. There were schools of law, medicine, arts, and, most importantly, theology. Some of the earliest and most prominent universities were Oxford, Notre Dame, Salamanca, Palencia, and Bologna.
During this time, cities also experienced remarkable development. Importantly, the city of Paris and the city-states of Northern Italy.
However, not only cities and universities grew during this period, but also the first monasteries acquired considerable importance. Arising from groups of hermits, monasteries were organized communities of monks dedicated to various activities.
Sociocultural Context
The pre-Renaissance society in which Saint Thomas lived had a feudal setting, divided into nobility (major landowners), clergy (representing the Church), and peasants (those who worked the lands of their lords in exchange for protection).
The schools of translators, along with the universities, were major centers of culture. Some of the most important were in Toledo, Barcelona, and Tarazona, instilling in them an exclusively classical learning theory, away from experimentation and the scientific method.
Importantly, the Church had significant influence in all aspects of society and culture. In the monasteries, important work was performed in literature, philosophy, and science. The motto of these, Ora et labora (pray and work), aptly describes the routine life of the monks who lived there. The work of the copyists who, in libraries, were responsible for writing back to help their dissemination, school building, and developing this technique throughout Europe, stands out.
Philosophical Context
The main philosophical concerns of this period were the relations between reason and faith, and the existence of universals in the Platonic mode. Thus, philosophy functioned as a mediator for theology.
The method used primarily by scholastic philosophers was initiated by Saint Anselm and characterized by the principle of authority (respect for classical philosophers, especially Aristotle), cautious about innovations and common heritage. The scholastic methodology, despite being very theoretical, was also very accurate. Lectio began with a traditional text or commentary. Next came disputationes, conducting dialogues where questions were raised, reasons for and against were presented, and a conclusion was reached to develop a response.
It is also important to discuss the progress that involved contact with Arab and Jewish philosophy (most notably the recovery of Aristotelian texts), through the School of Aachen and representatives such as Averroes and Maimonides.