San Agustin: Historical Context and Philosophical Thought
San Agustin: The Historical Background of Decline
Western Roman Empire – Two great emperors: Julian II, called the Apostate (361 to 363), and Theodosius the Great.
After the death of Theodosius, the empire was divided into two:
- The West, for his son Honorius.
- The East, for his son Arcadius.
The barbarians were already inside and outside the Roman frontiers.
Economic crisis of the late empire.
Sacking of Rome by the Visigoths in 410 AD.
In 380, Theodosius declared Christianity the official religion of the empire – influence of moral and Catholic thought in the West.
Order, well-being, and tolerance.
Uptake by Catholicism of the entire organizational framework of the empire in economic, political, and legal matters.
Sociocultural Context
In the literary field of the fourth century, poets such as Porphyry and Ausonius are notable.
In Christianity, figures include, in addition to Augustine, Ambrose, Ladies, and Athanasius.
The 4th and 5th centuries are the golden age of Patristics:
- First stage: Councils of Nicaea and Constantinople I.
- Second phase: Councils of Ephesus and Chalcedon.
The Church Fathers assumed the role of defenders of the true faith, engaging in discussions and controversies on major Christian dogmas and fighting against heresies.
- Arius held that the Son of God was not equal to the Father but a creature within Him. Arianism was condemned at the Councils of Nicaea and Constantinople I.
- Nestorius, Patriarch of Alexandria, denied the divinity of Christ, arguing that since he was born of a woman, he was a perfect human being but not God. The condemnation of Nestorius and his followers took place at the Council of Ephesus.
- Pelagius, a British monk, argued in the early 5th century that original sin was not inherent, and therefore Christ’s redemption was unnecessary. Augustine vehemently opposed Pelagianism. Pelagius and his followers were condemned at the Council of Carthage.
Philosophical Context
Neoplatonism, through Plotinus, was dominant in the Roman Empire during the 4th and 5th centuries.
Aristotle’s books were lacking, as they did not seem consistent with the main tenets of Christianity due to the materialistic interpretation of Theophrastus and his followers.
Among the best-known philosophical authors at the time of Augustine was Proclus (410-485), the most important representative of the Neoplatonic School of Athens.
Thought: Body and Soul
The human being is a compound of body (matter) and soul (form). Following the Platonic tradition, the soul is the most important part. The body is conceived as a mere instrument of the soul.
The soul is a spiritual substance, simple and indivisible, as presented by Plato in the Phaedo.
It assumes all cognitive functions, the most important being the higher reason, which seeks wisdom.
In addition to intelligence, the soul also encompasses memory and will. The will acquires special importance, being considered a superior function to understanding.
The soul is immortal but, unlike in Platonism, it is not eternal.
Arguments to defend the immortality of the soul from Platonism: as the soul is of a simple nature, it cannot be broken and has no parts, therefore it must be indestructible and immortal.
Levels of the Theory of Knowledge
Although San Agustin does not address the issue of knowledge with a specific theory, he tries to establish the conditions under which knowledge will be given the truth, according to the Christian ideal of the pursuit of Christ and wisdom.
The philosopher distinguishes between sensible and rational knowledge. Rational knowledge, in turn, can be lower (sensitive) and superior.
The lowest level of knowledge is sensitive knowledge. Although performed by the soul, the senses are its instruments. This kind of knowledge only leads to opinion (doxa), a type of knowledge subject to change since it concerns the mutable and depends on the senses. Any gaps in knowledge will be forwarded to the sensitive soul.
The real object of knowledge is not changeable but immutable, where truth resides. Sensitive knowledge cannot provide that truth.
Rational knowledge, in its lower activity, is directed towards the knowledge of what is universal and necessary in temporal reality, which is the kind of knowledge we call science. This type of knowledge depends on the soul but occurs as a result of contact with sensible reality, marking the occasion that allows the origin of universals.
Rational knowledge, in its higher activity, is called wisdom by St. Augustine. This is authentic philosophical knowledge: knowledge of universal and necessary truths, ideas, according to Plato. Thus, there is a gradation of knowledge, from the lowest levels (sensitive) to the mind of God.
How to achieve the knowledge of ideas? Given their remoteness from the sensitive reality in which man finds himself, the ideas can be known only through a special light that God gives the soul to the higher activity of reason. True knowledge, therefore, depends on divine illumination. Light is God.