Scientific Methods: From Craft to Theory and Epistemological Act
Approach to Scientific Methods
The knowledge that flows from the source of scientific inquiry shows that:
- From the universal tree of knowledge, some branches were torn off, constituting objects of specific and partial knowledge. These branches do not emerge as a new explosion in a completely new context but as a result of a move from a known situation, resulting in something new.
- At the beginning of new knowledge, certain craft operations are always present, associated with existential needs such as survival and enjoyment. Cooking is the origin of alchemy, which would continue with chemistry. Play is at the origin of physical exercise, which then gave rise to the gym and gymnastics.
- On these craft activities, at any given time, there is a reflection. From the mere manipulation of objects, knowledge about them emerges. Boats were initially provided, but the formulation of Archimedes’ principle provided the knowledge that explains why they float. The individual gymnast or athlete performs exercises or physical drives, but it is the technical gimnasiarca, coach, or teacher who determines and explains what exercises should be done in a particular way. At the end of this process, an epistemological act occurs that leads to true, correct, and objective knowledge, which is science.
Scientific knowledge is a product of human activity. From facts or realities, the scientist produces statements and, by a method, realizes the generalized reality or facts observed at another level or level of knowledge. In that epistemological act, through the method, a strong, apodictic connection is established between the plane of observable, demonstrable, measurable facts and experiments and the level of theory as constitutive of reality. The premises upon which the actual contents rest are a material and inseparable part of science. Science is an epistemological result, and its reality lies in the connection of facts and theory by an appropriate, correct, useful, and efficient method. Exercise remains a mere practice until theoretical reflection transforms it into the theory of exercises. Physical activity and sport become science only if they resemble the process followed by other human activities that have achieved the designation of science. Throughout this process, the method, namely the scientific method, has played a fundamental role.
Scientific knowledge is based on the trust that the community reports and the scientific method used for discovery, development, and confirmation. Modern science or positive science differs from ancient sciences by assisting in the emergence of new methods. Broadly, a method is the way to pursue knowledge, to discover and find the truth. In a normative sense, the method is a technique, a set of rules to follow for those who wish to master a particular field to understand and develop it. These techniques include philological, qualifying, heuristics, graphs, and measurement. In an epistemological sense, the method is the set of procedures or principles that require advance knowledge of a particular field of knowledge. Methods are classified in relation to the sector or area as formal sciences, natural sciences, or human sciences.
Methods in higher education can be grouped into two categories: those that seek to investigate, which are experimental methods, and those used to communicate knowledge for teaching and learning. Despite all disquisitions on what is or is not a method, a definition is necessary, without ascribing to any particular position like Popper, Adorno, Habermas, Lakatos, Fereyaben, or Kuhn. We prefer the definition proposed by our late colleague Rafael Burgaleta in his Scientific Methodology for Human Sciences (1981): “Method is a set of systematic and organized procedures by which it is possible to pose relevant questions about an object and carefully check the right answers to these questions.”
The method and the non-rebuttal of scientific findings are the essence of scientific knowledge. If a result of scientific activity has been achieved with the clarity and transparency that distinguish the scientific method, accessible to all, democratic in itself, facilitating data and conclusions for others to monitor the results, then it resists criticism and evidence against it. It has a trust that ensures a better explanation of the universe and humanity and also a way to live better on Earth.