Second Language Acquisition
Chapter 15: Second Language Learning
Second Language Learning
A distinction is sometimes made between learning in a foreign language setting (learning a language that is not generally spoken in the surrounding community) and a second language setting (learning a language that is spoken in the surrounding community). That is, Japanese students in an English class in Japan are learning English as a foreign language (EFL) and, if those same students were in an English class in the USA, they would be learning English as a second language (ESL). In either case, they are simply trying to learn another language, so the expression second language learning is used more generally to describe both situations.
The term acquisition is used to refer to the gradual development of ability in a language. Joseph Conrad’s writing refers to the ability of an adult L2 learner to master aspects of the written language, but to speak with a distinct L1 accent.
Barriers to Second Language Acquisition
The typical barriers to acquiring an L2 as an adult compared to L1 acquisition as a child are:
- Insufficient time to dedicate to the process (children have constant interaction experience).
- Insufficient incentive in contrast to children.
- The critical period for language acquisition has passed.
- Affective factors (stressed, uncomfortable, self-conscious, or unmotivated).
The Grammar-Translation Method
The most traditional approach is to treat L2 learning in the same way as any other academic subject. Vocabulary lists and sets of grammar rules are used to define the target of learning, memorization is encouraged, and written language rather than spoken language is emphasized. This method has its roots in the traditional teaching of Latin and is described as the grammar-translation method.
The Audiolingual Method
A very different approach, emphasizing the spoken language, became popular in the middle of the twentieth century. It involved a systematic presentation of the structures of the L2, moving from the simple to the more complex, in the form of drills that the student had to repeat. This approach, called the audiolingual method, was strongly influenced by a belief that the fluent use of a language was essentially a set of habits that could be developed with a lot of practice.
Communicative Approaches
Communicative approaches are partially a reaction against the artificiality of pattern-practice and also against the belief that consciously learning the grammar rules of a language will necessarily result in an ability to use the language.
Transfer
Transfer means using sounds, expressions, or structures from the L1 when performing in the L2. For example, a Spanish (L1) speaker who produces “take it from the side inferior” may be trying to use the Spanish adjective inferior (= lower in English) and placing it after the noun, as is typical in Spanish constructions. If the L1 and L2 have similar features (e.g., marking plural on the ends of nouns), then the learner may be able to benefit from the positive transfer of L1 knowledge to the L2. On the other hand, transferring an L1 feature that is really different from the L2 (e.g., putting the adjective after the noun) results in negative transfer, and it may make the L2 expression difficult to understand. We should remember that negative transfer (sometimes called interference) is more common in the early stages of L2 learning and often decreases as the learner develops familiarity with the L2.
Interlanguage
Evidence suggests that there is some in-between system used in the L2 acquisition process that certainly contains aspects of the L1 and L2 but is an inherently variable system with rules of its own. This system is called an interlanguage, and it is now considered to be the basis of all L2 production. If some learners develop a fairly fixed repertoire of L2 expressions, containing many forms that do not match the target language and seem not to be progressing any further, their interlanguage is said to have fossilized. The process of fossilization in L2 pronunciation seems to be the most likely basis of what is perceived as a foreign accent. However, an interlanguage is not designed to fossilize. An interlanguage is fossilized when it contains many forms that do not match the target language, and no further progress is being made.
Motivation
Several factors combine to create a profile of a successful L2 learner. Obviously, the motivation to learn is important. Many learners have an instrumental motivation. That is, they want to learn the L2 to achieve some other goal, such as completing a school graduation requirement or being able to read scientific publications, but not really for any social purposes. In contrast, those learners with an integrative motivation want to learn the L2 for social purposes, to take part in the social life of a community using that language and to become an accepted member of that community.
Input and Negotiated Input
The term input is used to describe the language that the learner is exposed to. To be beneficial for L2 learning, that input has to be comprehensible. It can be made comprehensible by being simpler in structure and vocabulary, as in the variety of speech called foreigner talk. Negotiated input is L2 material that the learner can acquire in interaction through requests for clarification while active attention is being focused on what is said.
Communicative Competence
Communicative competence can be defined as the general ability to use language accurately, appropriately, and flexibly.
Grammatical Competence
The first component is grammatical competence, which involves the accurate use of words and structures. Concentration on grammatical competence only, however, will not provide the learner with the ability to interpret or produce L2 expressions appropriately.
Sociolinguistic Competence
The ability to use appropriate language is the second component, called sociolinguistic competence. It enables the learner to know when to say “Can I have some water?” versus “Give me some water!” according to the social context.
Strategic Competence
The third component is called strategic competence. This is the ability to organize a message effectively and to compensate, via strategies, for any difficulties. In L2 use, learners inevitably experience moments when there is a gap between communicative intent and their ability to express that intent. Some learners may just stop talking (bad idea), whereas others will try to express themselves using a communication strategy. In essence, strategic competence is the ability to overcome potential communication problems in interaction.