Second Language Acquisition Theories and Models
The Monitor Hypothesis
Before learners produce an utterance, they internally scan it for errors and use their learned system to make corrections. Self-correction occurs when learners use the Monitor to correct a sentence after it is uttered. According to the hypothesis, such self-monitoring and self-correction are the only functions of conscious language learning.
Conditions for Monitor Use:
- Time
- Focus on form
- Knowledge of the rules
Krashen’s Five Hypotheses
1. The Affective Filter Hypothesis
Certain emotions, such as anxiety, self-doubt, and boredom, interfere with the process of acquiring a second language.
2. The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis
There are two independent ways in which we develop our linguistic skills: acquisition and learning.
Acquisition is a subconscious process of which the individual is not aware. One is unaware of the process as it is happening, and when the new knowledge is acquired, the acquirer generally does not realize that he or she possesses any new knowledge.
Learning, on the other hand, is a conscious process, much like what one experiences in school. New knowledge or language forms are represented consciously in the learner’s mind.
3. The Comprehensible Input Hypothesis
Comprehensible input (CI) refers to the spoken and written input that is necessary for someone to learn a language. For instance, comprehensible input can be a reading passage, audio, or video. The term is most often used in conjunction with Stephen Krashen’s input hypothesis.
According to the input hypothesis, we acquire language only when we receive comprehensible input.
4. The Input Hypothesis
This hypothesis is concerned with input that we can understand. We acquire language by focusing on meaning first, and as a result, we acquire structure. Speaking fluency emerges over time and on its own after enough competence has been developed by listening and understanding.
The classroom can be a better place for second language acquisition than the outside world because it can provide more comprehensible input. The more comprehension there is, the faster the learner’s ability to pick up the language. Unclear input leads to poorer performance.
5. The Natural Order Hypothesis
The acquisition of grammatical rules follows a natural, predictable order. For example, in the English language, learners acquire the progressive –ing, plural –s, and active voice before they acquire the third person –s or passive voice.
The Interaction Hypothesis
Through input and interaction with interlocutors, language learners have opportunities to notice differences between their own formulations of the target language and the language of their conversational partners. They also receive feedback, which both modifies the linguistic input they receive and pushes them to modify their output during conversation.
The Output Hypothesis
This hypothesis proposes that without production (output) expectations that correspond to the input that the language learner receives, the student’s conversational abilities in the second language will lag far behind their comprehension abilities.
Three Functions of Output
1. The Noticing Trigger Function
Learners become aware of gaps in their L2 knowledge.
2. The Hypothesis-Testing Role
Learners have opportunities to test their hypotheses about the L2.
3. The Metalinguistic Function
Learners reflect on their L2 use and identify areas for improvement. These functions are often automated.
It is important to understand various aspects of L2 learning because it involves cognitive variables, affective ones, input, anxiety, cultural context, personality, lateralization, mother tongue, and target language.
Cognitive Model (McLaughlin)
McLaughlin’s information processing model divides cognitive processing into two categories: controlled and automatic.
Controlled processing is typical of anyone learning a brand new skill in which only a very few elements of the skill can be retained.
Automatic processing occurs in a more accomplished skill where the brain can control thousands of pieces of information simultaneously.
Social Constructivist Model
This model emphasizes the dynamic nature of the interplay between learners and their peers, teachers, and others with whom they interact. The interpersonal context plays a crucial role in language learning.
Acquisition vs. Learning
Acquisition is a subconscious, implicit, internal, and natural way of learning (like a child’s first language acquisition). It is an unconscious process of picking up language in informal contexts through meaningful interaction in a natural communicative setting. Errors are often ignored.
Learning involves conscious knowledge about the L2, knowing the rules, explicit learning, and competence in grammar. It is often characterized by instruction, where error detection and correction are central.
The Critical Period Hypothesis
This hypothesis proposes a biologically determined period of life when language can be acquired more easily and beyond which time language is increasingly difficult to acquire. This period is thought to occur around puberty, beyond which people seem to be relatively incapable of acquiring a second language with native-like fluency.
Lateralization
Lateralization is the localization of cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain. It starts at the age of 2 and is complete around puberty. During this time, the child assigns functions little by little to one side of the brain or the other (neurologically).