Second Language Acquisition: Theories, Strategies, and Learners
Second Language Acquisition (SLA)
Overview
What is Second Language Acquisition?
In second language learning, language plays an institutional and social role in the community. It functions as a recognized means of communication among members who speak some other language as their native tongue.
In foreign language learning, language plays no major role in the community and is primarily learned in the classroom.
The distinction between second and foreign language learning is what is learned and how it is learned.
What is the Study of Second Language Acquisition?
It is the study of:
- How second languages are learned.
- How learners create a new language system with limited exposure to a second language.
- Why most second language learners do not achieve the same degree of proficiency in a second language as they do in their native language.
- And why some learners appear to achieve native-like proficiency in more than one language.
How Do Learners Acquire a Second Language?
Learners acquire a second language by making use of existing knowledge of the native language, general learning strategies, or universal properties of language to internalize knowledge of the second language.
These processes serve as a means by which the learner constructs an interlanguage.
Communication strategies are employed by the learner to make use of existing knowledge to cope with communication difficulties.
The Language Learner
Individual Differences
Individual differences affect L2 acquisition. These may include:
- The rate of development.
- Their ultimate level of achievement.
Learners differ with regard to variables relating to cognitive, affective, and social aspects of a human being.
Fixed factors such as age and language learning aptitude are beyond external control. Variable factors such as motivation are influenced by external factors such as social setting and by the actual course of L2 development.
Cognitive Style
Cognitive style refers to the way people perceive, conceptualize, organize, and recall information.
Field-dependent learners operate holistically. They like to work with others. Field-independent learners are analytic and prefer to work alone.
Learner Strategies
Definition
Learner strategies are defined as deliberate behaviors or actions that learners use to make language learning more successful, self-directed, and enjoyable.
Types of Strategies
- Cognitive strategies relate new concepts to prior knowledge.
- Metacognitive strategies are those which help with organizing a personal timetable to facilitate an effective study of the L2.
- Social strategies include looking for opportunities to converse with native speakers.
Strategies of L2 Development
Chesterfield & Chesterfield (1985) identified a natural order of strategies in the development of a second language:
- Repetition (imitating a word or structure).
- Memorization (recalling songs, rhymes, or sequences by rote).
- Formulaic expressions (words or phrases that function as units i.e. greetings).
- Verbal attention getters (language that initiates interaction).
- Answering in unison (responding with others).
- Talking to self (engaging in internal monologue).
- Elaboration (information beyond what is necessary).
- Anticipatory answers (completing another’s phrase or statement).
- Monitoring (self-correcting errors).
- Appeal for assistance (asking someone for help).
- Request for clarification (asking the speaker to explain or repeat).
- Role-playing (interacting with another by taking on roles).
Language Learning Theories
1. Universalist Theory
Defines linguistic universals from two perspectives:
- The data-driven perspective which looks at surface features of a wide-range of languages to find out how languages vary and what principles underlie this variation. The data-driven approach considers system external factors or input as the basis.
- The theory-driven perspective which looks at in-depth analysis of the properties of language to determine highly abstract principles of grammar. System internal factors are those found in cognitive and linguistic processes.
2. Behaviorist Theory
Dominated both psychology and linguistics in the 1950’s. This theory suggests that external stimuli (extrinsic) can elicit an internal response which in turn can elicit an internal stimuli (intrinsic) that lead to external responses.
The learning process has been described by SRR theorists as a process forming stimulus-response-reward chains. These chains come about because of the nature of the environment and the nature of the learner.
Language Learning vs. Language Acquisition
- Language acquisition is a subconscious process.
- Language learning requires a formal knowledge of explicit rules.
What are Language Learning Strategies?
Language learning strategies are specific actions, behaviors, steps, or techniques that students (often intentionally) use to improve their progress in developing L2 skills.
These strategies can facilitate the internalization, storage, retrieval, or use of the new language. Strategies are tools for the self-directed involvement necessary for developing communicative ability.
Historical Overview of Language Teaching Methods
- 1800 – Grammar Translation Method
- 1900 – Direct Method
- 1945 – Audio-Lingual Method
- 1950 – Silent Way
- 1960 – Community Language Learning
- 1970 – Suggestopedia
- 1970 – Total Physical Response
- 1970 – Cognitive Approach
- 1980 – Communicative Approach
- 1985 – Humanistic Approach
- 1987 – Task-Based Language Learning