Semantics and Linguistics: A Comprehensive Guide
Semantics and Linguistics
Introduction
Semantics is the linguistic discipline concerned with the meaning of linguistic expressions and the relationships between words in the lexicon that connect them to the world.
Semes and Sememes
Semes are the minimal set of features that give meaning to a word. The complete set of semes for a word is called a sememe.
- General Semes: Lexical morphemes common to various words (e.g., animated, individual, mammal).
- Specific Semes: Features that define the meaning of a particular word (e.g., cat: animated, feline, domestic).
Context and Meaning
The meaning of a word is often determined by its context. Context can refer to:
- The set of words surrounding a word in a discourse.
- The relationship between a statement and its terms.
- The reason why certain units have appeared in a particular place.
Sign and Meaning
Location: The meaning of a sign is determined by extralinguistic circumstances and the speaker’s intent.
Direction: Linguistic expressions in a communicative act include the sign, linguistic determinations, context, and situation.
Components of the Linguistic Sign
- Descriptive Meaning: The sense of the sentence determined by contextual elements.
- Connotative Meaning: Aspects related to the situation and the speaker’s emotions or intentions.
Polysemy and Homonymy
Polysemy: The plurality of meanings of a word that share the same etymological origin.
Homonymy: Words that have the same form but different meanings and different etymological origins. Homonymy can be full (identical in all forms) or partial (identical in some forms).
Vocabulary
Vocabulary refers to the set of words used for communication.
Types of Words
- Heritage/Traditional Words: Words transmitted from Latin into Castilian orally, undergoing phonetic and semantic changes.
- Learned Words: Words derived from Latin roots transmitted through writing without significant changes. Often incorporated through the church, arts, and sciences.
- Loanwords: Terms incorporated from other languages due to social, cultural, and economic reasons (e.g., Arabic, French, English, Italian, American Indigenous languages).
Neologisms
Neologisms are newly introduced words or existing words that acquire new meanings. They often arise in the field of technology.
Creation of New Terms
- Word Formation Processes: Derivation, composition, parasynthesis, acronym formation.
- Loanwords and New Meanings: Increased use of English and French terms.
- Foreign Words: Words that retain their original spelling and pronunciation (e.g., software, spray).
- Hispanicized Words: Foreign words adapted to Spanish spelling and pronunciation.
- Calques: Translations of foreign words or expressions.
- Semantic Calques: A Spanish term acquires a new meaning (e.g., mouse).
- Lexical Calques: A new expression is created (e.g., fast food, homeless).
Semantic Changes
Semantic changes can occur due to various reasons:
- Historical Reasons: Invention of new objects, changes in institutions, ideas, scientific concepts, and technological advancements.
- Psychological and Social Causes: Emotional factors, social, cultural, and political influences.
- Euphemisms: Words replaced by others considered taboo (e.g., visually impaired instead of blind).
- Semantic Restriction: General words acquire specialized meanings (e.g., mouse, menu, network).
- Semantic Extension: Words from specific fields enter general use.
- Linguistic Causes: Influence of context on word meaning.
Terminology
Terminology refers to the set of specific terms used in a particular profession, activity, or technology. These terms ensure clear communication among specialists.
Characteristics of Specialized Vocabulary
- Denotative: Focuses on literal meaning.
- Unique and Unambiguous: Each term has a specific meaning.
- Context-Dependent: Meaning can be influenced by the communicative situation.
- Variations: Pragmatic, geographical, sociolinguistic, and conceptual factors can lead to variations in meaning.
Types of Specialized Terms
- Words: (e.g., ulcer, polymorph)
- Compound Phrases: (e.g., steering wheel)
- Phraseological Units: (e.g., repeal a law)
- Symbols and Acronyms: (e.g., O3, Na, AIDS)
Formation of Specialized Words
- Origin:
- Common language terms acquiring specialized meanings.
- Learned words from Greek or Latin, including hybrids.
- Foreign words (e.g., bypass), adaptations (e.g., floppy disk), and calques (e.g., computer).
- Form:
- Simple terms (e.g., acid)
- Terms formed through language processes (e.g., derivation, compounding).
Vulgarization
Specialized terms can sometimes enter common language and undergo simplification or alteration (e.g., mad cow disease for bovine spongiform encephalopathy).