Sephardic Jews: History and Culture in Medieval Spain
Jews in Sepharad: A Historical Overview
According to some accounts, the arrival of Jews in the Iberian Peninsula (Sepharad) occurred after the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar. From the third century onward, Jewish communities existed in this territory, considering Toledoth (city of generations) as their cultural and religious center.
Jews and Visigoths: A Complex Relationship
The relationship between Jews and Visigoths was generally respectful, though not always cordial. Discrimination against Jewish communities began with the Council of Elvira in the fourth century, requiring them to pay tribute to maintain their independence. While Jews never held political power, they exerted economic, diplomatic, and social influence.
Challenges from the Christian Church
Problems for the Jews became more common after the Visigothic King Recaredo converted to Christianity in 589, seeking political unity for Spain. Several measures were enacted to isolate the Jews. The Council of Toledo in 633 compelled them to convert to Christianity or face expulsion.
Jews as Partners in the South (Al-Andalus)
Muslims viewed the Jews with some leniency, considering them as fellow Semites and potential allies. The Muslims were tolerant, and the Jewish response was to contribute to the development of Al-Andalus.
Muslims and Jews: People of the Book
Jews established colonies in major conquered cities, bringing trade and sharing administrative responsibilities with Muslims. They gradually became Arabized and received religious protection. The caliphs were often complacent with a culture they considered complementary to their own.
Early Tensions Between Muslims and Jews
Cordoba, as the seat of the caliphate, did not allow a large Jewish community. Religious fanaticism within Islam occasionally embittered the lives of Jewish communities.
Al-Andalus: A Place for Three Cultures
Within five years, Muslims dominated the Visigothic territories, reaching the Pyrenees and Cantabrian regions. By the mid-eighth century, Rahman III adopted the title of Caliph and declared Cordoba the capital of the caliphate. Al-Andalus developed a strong economy with business connections throughout the Mediterranean area. The arrival of the Muslims marked the beginning of eight centuries of coexistence among three religions and cultures. Jews and Christians were minorities, and their status was not equal to that of the Muslims.
Muslim Tolerance and its Limits
Minorities were permitted to practice their religions but were required to pay a capitulation tax. Muslim tolerance allowed minorities, including the Mozarabs (tolerated as “people of the book”), to contribute to the development of Al-Andalus. They maintained their administration and laws in exchange for paying certain taxes.
Slaves in Al-Andalus
The Umayyads, distrustful of other minorities, brought slaves from various Mediterranean and Eastern European regions (Saqalibah). These slaves initially performed menial tasks but eventually occupied positions in administration and trade. They remained a distinct group within Al-Andalus, forming communities in Denia, Tortosa, Valencia, and the Balearic Islands.
The Zoco and the Muhtasib
To preserve religious orthodoxy, the position of muhtasib (market inspector) was created. This official inspected commercial life and also monitored religious affairs, even among slaves.
Music in Al-Andalus
Music in Al-Andalus flourished due to the arrival of the musician Ziryab in the 9th century. He modified the lute and established an academy in Cordoba.
Abraham: Father of Three Religions
The patriarch Abraham is considered the origin of the three religions, all of which are monotheistic. This shared heritage created a society that allowed coexistence, though it was always conditioned by the dominant culture.
Initial Coexistence Between Jews and Christians
Municipal statutes granted rights to Jews, who had their own judges, and their economic status thrived. Their position was consolidated by the favor of monarchs who obtained loans and grants from them.
The Aljama: Jewish Quarters
As problems with Christians arose, Jews chose to live in neighborhoods (aljamas) that could be closed off in times of tension or threatened violence.
The Mudéjares
The Mudéjares (Muslims living under Christian rule) had a special status, allowing them to retain their mosques, be governed by their own laws, and elect their own authorities and judges. However, they were forced to pay a special tribute.
The End of Tolerance Between Jews and Christians
The Third Council of the Lateran in the late twelfth century marked the end of free coexistence between Jews and Christians. It decreed that Jews should not have Christian servants, excommunicated Christians who lived with Jews, and mandated that Christians treat Jews well.