Skepticism: History, Principles, and Impact on Philosophy
Skepticism: A Constant in the History of Thought
Skepticism is a constant in the history of thought, appearing and reappearing throughout the ages. Kant divides all thinkers into dogmatic or skeptical.
The Lack of Certain Knowledge
The founder of skepticism was Pyrrho of Elis. Skepticism has a significant degree of unorthodoxy in its thinking and a common basis: the affirmation of the impossibility of all true knowledge.
The Attitude of Skeptical Doubt
The attitude of skeptical doubt appeared with the Sophists and was somewhat hidden in Socrates’ famous statement, “I know that I know nothing.” The skeptic concludes with the suspension of judgment, not defending any philosophical stance and staying in a dubious attitude. After hard thinking and inquiry, there are no reasons that allow one to opt for a specific thesis. The skeptic remains in doubt, neither confirming nor denying, practicing epoche (attitude of suspension of judgment). When life pushes the skeptic to make decisions, they are guided by common sense and utility, clinging to arguments that consider the mere probability that things are what they appear to be, “until proven otherwise.”
The Skeptic’s Happiness
Happiness, for the skeptic, consists in tranquility, serenity, and equanimity. This is provided by the rejection of any doctrine, the lack of commitment, and the healthy skepticism that coined later times. This lack of commitment involves ethical and epistemological release, accompanied by the peace sought by Hellenistic philosophers.
Nothing Is: Reasons for Doubt
Skeptical radicalization leads to the conclusion that nothing is good, all perspectives are equally unreliable, knowledge is not true, and, worse, the world as it is in itself escapes us absolutely. There are tropes, arguments that have been refined and gathered to support the fundamental thesis of the impossibility of knowledge and the consequent suspension of judgment. These tropes were reworked and synthesized by Enesidemo and Agrippa, who reduced them to ten and five, respectively.
Absolute Relativism
Nothing is known beyond my imperfect way of knowing, so I must suspend judgment since I have no more than probable opinions. Agrippa reduced the skeptic tropes to five, insisting on their foundation.
1. Absolute Lack of Consensus
Humans do not agree; therefore, consensus cannot be claimed as a foundation for certainty. One can only practice epoche, the suspension of judgment.
2. Impossibility of Any Foundation
When it comes to foundations, we must resort to arguments that, in turn, require substantiation. This leads to an infinite regress, never reaching any solid principles, leading to epoche.
3. Relativity of All
Any overriding principle for eligibility is always in relation to the subject that defends it. The evidence often given in such cases is always subjective evidence in relation to a subject. It is, therefore, not absolute but relative. The only absolute is this pervasive relativity. This trope is considered the most important.
4. Absolute Probability
Since evidence is subjective (3), any attempt at an ultimate foundation leads to an endless process (2), and consensus cannot be appealed to (1).
5. Vicious Circle
A vicious circle is incurred when substantiating a thesis based on a principle that, in turn, is based on the principle that must be supported. This is the problem of the chicken and the egg: I cannot say that the chicken came from the egg if, when asked about the egg, I say that the chicken laid it.