Social and Industrial Transformations in the 19th Century
Social Changes in the 19th Century
The Rise of Class Consciousness. The working classes became conscious of their collective identity and began organizing to make demands (giving rise to unions, labor parties, etc.). This led to successive improvements in employment conditions. Two factors contributed to the strengthening of collective consciousness: a significant increase in non-wage earners and urbanization. The main instrument of force was the strike, often harshly repressed by employers. The direct consequences were resistance to wage cuts and pressure to reduce working hours. Legislation was introduced to improve working conditions. These improvements prompted companies to cover costs by implementing new machinery and processes, which in turn increased productivity.
In conclusion, there was a growing social confrontation, improved working conditions, and increased income, leading to higher market demand and thus compensating for the falling rate of profit.
The End of British Hegemony
The United Kingdom began to lose its dominance. British production continued to increase during the 19th century, but at a slower rate than its main competitor, the United States. However, London remained the world’s financial center, and the pound continued to be the reference currency. In 1890, the U.S. claimed the title of the world’s leading industrial nation, basing its strength on abundant resources, vast territory, strong innovation, and a huge market.
The causes of British decline were rooted in its inability to adapt to new production and organizational techniques.
Industrialization in Spain
Industrialization in Spain was driven by public institutions and foreign capital from industrialized countries. The Spanish bourgeoisie did not invest heavily in industrialization or changing the means of production, which remained backward compared to Europe’s more dynamic economies. Key industries included:
- Textile: The textile industry developed in Spain, spurred by British capital. The invention of the Berguedana spinning machine. The textile industry was primarily introduced in rural areas due to lower wages and less stringent quality control. It had a long tradition in Catalonia. In Valencia, the focus was on footwear.
- Chemistry: This industry was dependent on foreign influence. For most of the 19th century, its products were protected. In 1899, in Gerona, the La Esperanza cement factory was established.
- Iron and Coal: Coal was fundamental in the first part of the Industrial Revolution. Besides being the main energy source, it was used in the steel industry to produce steel. Spanish coal was found in the basins of Leon, Asturias, and Palencia. In the 19th century, it had to compete with British coal. Since then, the authorities have significantly contributed to the maintenance of the Asturian industry. A series of associated steelworks developed, such as Duro Felguera, Mieres, Asturias Zinc, and Trubia. To transport this production, the North Railroad was built, connecting Asturias to the Basque Country and Madrid. In iron manufacturing in Spain, two regions can be distinguished: Asturias, dedicated to the production of rolled iron, and Vizcaya, focused on iron bullion.