Social and Political Upheavals: From Old Regime to World War I

Posted on Nov 10, 2024 in History

1. The Old Regime and its Social Structure

The Old Regime was characterized by a stratified society, divided into two main groups:

• Privileged: This group, composed of the nobility and clergy, held significant advantages by law, including exemption from taxes, exclusive access to certain positions (e.g., ambassadors, soldiers), and separate legal systems. It was a closed social class.
• Underprivileged: Representing 90% of the population, this group included a rising bourgeoisie with increasing economic power, various other social classes, and the peasantry, who lived in dire conditions and bore the burden of numerous feudal dues to the nobles.

2. The Rise of Class Society and Economic Theories

The Industrial Revolution led to the emergence of a class-based society defined by economic disparities:

• Bourgeoisie: This class owned the means of production and controlled the economic system.
• Proletariat: Lacking the means to acquire the means of production, this class relied on selling their labor for wages.

Key economic theories of this period included:

• Free Trade: This theory advocated for the removal of barriers to international trade.
• Protectionism: This theory supported trade barriers to protect domestic industries.
• Enclosure Movement: Laws allowing landowners to enclose common lands, leading to increased agricultural efficiency but also displacing many small farmers, who migrated to cities.

3. Economic Liberalism and the Minimal State

Economic liberalism championed a minimal state focused on its own interests. Proponents believed that societal progress resulted from individuals pursuing their self-interest, guided by an “invisible hand” (the market). The state’s role was limited to maintaining the police, army, and justice system.

4. The French Revolution and its Supporters

The French Revolution found support from various social groups:

• The bourgeoisie sought to dismantle the privileges of the nobility and clergy.
• The “sans-culottes” (urban working class) aimed to alleviate their economic hardship.
• The peasantry desired an end to feudal obligations and access to land ownership.

5. The Radical Phase of the French Revolution

The execution of King Louis XVI in 1793 marked a radical turn in the revolution. Facing war with European powers and internal uprisings, the Jacobins seized power. France became a democratic and social republic under the Committee of Public Safety, led by Robespierre. Key policies included:

• The use of terror
• Establishment of a national army
• Social measures like the Law of the Maximum, setting price controls
• Changes to the calendar

6. Liberalism, Democracy, and Socialism

• Economic Liberalism: Emphasized economic freedom, minimal state intervention, and free trade.
• Political Liberalism: Advocated for equality before the law, individual rights and liberties, division of powers, national sovereignty, and a written constitution.
• Democracy: Power resides in the people.
• Socialism: Aimed for economic equality and the elimination of social differences.

7. The Congress of Vienna and the Restoration

The Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) established the principles of the Restoration:

• Legitimism: Reinstatement of pre-revolutionary monarchies.
• Balance of Power: Redrawing of European borders to prevent any single power from becoming too dominant.
• Interventionism: The right of European powers to intervene in other countries to suppress revolutions, leading to the formation of the Holy Alliance (Russia, Prussia, Austria).

8. Ideologies of the 1848 Revolutions

The revolutions of 1848 were fueled by:

• Liberalism: Opposing the Old Regime and advocating for individual freedoms.
• Democracy: Promoting popular sovereignty and universal male suffrage.
• Nationalism: Asserting the right of nations to self-determination.
• Socialism: Addressing social and economic inequalities.

9. German Unification

German unification, orchestrated by Otto von Bismarck, unfolded through a series of wars:

• War of the Duchies (1864): Against Denmark, boosting Prussian prestige and German nationalism.
• Austro-Prussian War (1866): Removing Austria from German affairs and leading to the North German Confederation.
• Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871): Uniting German states against France, culminating in Prussian victory and the establishment of the German Empire in 1871.

10. Utopian Socialists

Utopian socialists criticized the working conditions during early industrialization. Key figures included:

• Louis Blanc: Advocated for universal suffrage.
• Charles Fourier: Proposed the creation of self-sufficient communities (phalansteries).
• Étienne Cabet: Designed a communist utopia called Icaria.
• Robert Owen: Supported labor rights and cooperatives.
• Pierre-Joseph Proudhon: Denounced economic inequality and influenced anarchism.

11. Anarchists vs. Marxists

• Anarchists: Defended collective ownership, freedom, and the abolition of the state, rejecting political participation.
• Marxists: Advocated for political parties, the dictatorship of the proletariat, and control of the state.

12. The Second International and its Division

World War I caused a crisis within the Second International, as socialist parties fought on opposing sides. The Bolshevik Revolution in Russia further divided the movement, leading to the formation of the Third International, which challenged the Second International’s authority.

13. Comparing the First and Second Industrial Revolutions

14. Imperialism and its Differences from Earlier Colonialism

Imperialism in the late 19th century involved the exploitation of resources and political domination of Africa and Asia by European powers. It differed from earlier colonialism in:

• Scope: Involved all major European powers, not just Spain and Portugal.
• Location: Focused on Africa and Asia, not the Americas.
• Nature: Primarily occupation, not settlement.
• Conflict: Led to increased competition and conflict among European powers.

15. The Berlin Conference

The Berlin Conference (1884-1885), convened to prevent conflict over African colonization, established:

• The Congo Free State under Belgian rule (but open to free trade).
• The principle of effective occupation, requiring physical presence and administration to claim a colony.

This sparked a scramble for Africa, with England, France, Portugal, Spain, Belgium, Italy, and Germany acquiring territories, leading to further tensions and conflicts.

16. World War I: A New Kind of War

World War I was unprecedented due to:

• Industrialized warfare with advanced weaponry.
• Its global scale and devastating impact.
• Its transformative effect on the world order.

17. Early 20th-Century Conflicts

European powers clashed over:

• Economic competition (England and Germany)
• Historical rivalries and imperial ambitions (France and Germany)
• Influence in the Balkans (Austria-Hungary and Russia)

These tensions led to the formation of the Triple Entente (France, Britain, Russia) and the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy).

18. The Treaty of Versailles

The Treaty of Versailles imposed harsh terms on Germany, including territorial losses, massive reparations, military restrictions, and exclusion from the League of Nations. These punitive measures contributed to economic instability and resentment, which Hitler later exploited.