Social Classes in the Industrial Revolution: A Hierarchy of Wealth
The Class System: A New Society
Under the Old Regime, the three estates were distinguished by their birth and privileges. In contrast, industrial society was divided into three social classes: the upper class, which consisted of the aristocracy and the high bourgeoisie; the middle class; and the lower class. Each social class was mainly defined by its wealth. One could move from one class to another, but many people’s economic circumstances made this impossible.
Industrial society was based on the principle of judicial equality. Men were judged by the same laws and courts, and there were few legal barriers preventing them from holding public office. However, in practice, there was great inequality. Women were subordinate to men (either to their fathers or husbands). Economic inequality separated those who had property and financial resources from those who did not.
The Decline of the Aristocracy
In the 19th century, the aristocracy lost dominance when its rights over the peasants were abolished, and it began to pay taxes. Moreover, the wealth of most aristocrats was still based on land ownership, so they did not benefit from business expansion. However, until the 20th century, many aristocrats still held leading positions in government, justice, and the military. They maintained a luxurious lifestyle that the bourgeoisie imitated.
The Emergence of the Bourgeoisie
The bourgeoisie became the most powerful class in industrial society. Industrialists and bankers formed the high bourgeoisie. Businessmen, high officials, and lawyers belonged to the bourgeoisie. The bourgeoisie lived in new neighborhoods on the outskirts of cities, with comfortable homes surrounded by gardens and parks. Leisure activities such as the theater, the opera, and horse racing became popular. Members of the bourgeoisie often attributed their wealth to their bourgeois values, such as hard work, making savings, and enjoying the security of family life. In many countries, the bourgeoisie made religion a strong feature of public life.
The Middle Class
A large middle class (or petite bourgeoisie) emerged in 19th-century industrial cities. This was a very diverse class of all the people in the middle layer of society. Thus, it included tradesmen, shopkeepers, artisans, teachers, and mid-level government officials and army officers. Many middle-class people owned property, although they were less wealthy than the bourgeoisie. They were often fairly well educated thanks to the expansion of schools and training colleges in the 19th century. The middle class shared bourgeois values with the bourgeoisie, like the idea that work and savings were the key to acquiring wealth. They did their best to have their children educated. In politics, the middle class supported reforms that would allow them to participate fully in political life. Not everyone had much free time, but there were cafes, casinos, and social clubs. Both women and men were great readers, and the writing of popular authors like Charles Dickens was widely serialised in journals each month.
The Lower Class
Much of the population did not benefit from the wealth created by the Industrial Revolution:
- Peasants: Peasants still formed the majority of the population in the 19th century, but their conditions varied greatly from region to region. In some parts of northern and western Europe, they owned plots of land. In the south, there were more day laborers, who worked on estates using basic tools and earned low wages. In central and eastern Europe, peasants were still serfs until the mid-19th century.
- The Proletariat: The proletariat was the name given to workers who only possessed their labor, which they exchanged for a salary. Workers performed tasks which required little skill. They received very low salaries, which they barely survived on. Children left school at a young age to start working and support the family. With little education, they could not change their position in society. These children often worked 12 or more hours a day.
- House Servants: House servants were also members of the lower class. They earned very low salaries and lived in the attics of the houses that they worked in. Servants worked more than 12 hours a day and only had one afternoon off a week.