Social, Economic Shifts: Europe’s Transformation (1870-1914)
Political and Social Change
Population and Migration
During this era, Europe’s population surged from 300 to 440 million. This overpopulation led to high unemployment and widespread social unrest. Consequently, many Europeans migrated to other countries seeking employment and improved living conditions.
The Development of the Labor Movement
The labor movement gained considerable momentum. New political parties advocating for labor rights and principles emerged in countries like France, Britain, Italy, and Spain. The Social Democratic Workers’ Party in Germany was the first and most influential. An international labor movement was established, with the Second International convening in Paris in 1889. Debates arose between parties supporting revolutionary power acquisition and those favoring democratic elections. However, capitalism, imperialism, and war were universally condemned.
Social and Democratic Advances
Countries such as Germany, France, and Britain enacted new laws to protect workers. These laws included regulations on working hours, minimum wages, compensation for accidents or illnesses, and pensions. Democratic elections with universal male suffrage were established in many European countries and the USA. The suffragists fought vigorously for women’s right to vote.
The Second Industrial Revolution and Economic Changes
The Second Industrial Revolution
The Second Industrial Revolution was fueled by the use of electricity and oil to power factories, along with innovative work organization methods. Electricity powered lighting and engines. The invention of the accumulator and transformer in 1897 allowed factories to be built independently of their power supply. Oil was converted into petrol and diesel to power combustion engines. New organizational methods, such as Taylorism and Fordism, were introduced to boost productivity. Taylorism, a management theory, analyzed working practices to optimize production efficiency. Fordism, exemplified by Henry Ford’s practices, involved using assembly lines for mass car production. An assembly line is a sequence of workers or machines that assemble parts of a product consecutively until completion. The metallurgical and chemical industries experienced significant growth. The metallurgical sector increased the production of steel, copper, and aluminum, used in new products like sewing machines, typewriters, bicycles, automobiles, and airplanes. The chemical sector produced plastics, synthetic fibers, and explosives.
Progress in Agriculture, Transport, and Commerce
Agriculture became more efficient through new technology and motor vehicles. Fertilizers boosted production, and new conservation methods enabled wider product distribution. Transport and communication underwent significant changes. The automobile, airplane, telephone, cinematograph, and radio were invented, revolutionizing many aspects of everyday life.