Social Phenomena & Research: Methods and Measurement

Posted on Mar 12, 2025 in Other university degrees and diplomas

TMO-T1 Complex: A Social Phenomenon

Professor Objeti’s work produces social change. The effects are:

  1. Predicting future motivations.
  2. Understanding the characteristics and behavior of tourists.
  3. Comprehending needs and demand.

It enables public authorities and other forms of TMO.

The Scientific Method

The scientific method is a procedure to achieve an end. Its characteristics are:

  1. The search for knowledge of a universal character attends to laws.
  2. Empirical observation.
  3. Accumulation of knowledge.
  4. Subjecting the process to review and criticism by the scientific community.

Ideally, a universal method is found.

Social Investigation Process

  1. It starts with a phenomenological theory that explains what to study.
  2. Hypotheses are posed.
  3. This information is analyzed.
  4. Data is produced.
  5. Analytical results are interpreted.

There are two moments:

  • Induction: Partly empirical data is used to state a theory or hypothesis.
  • Deduction: Explains what theories are part of what is to be observed to a certain empirical degree.

Stages of the Social Investigation Process

  1. Delimitation of the field of research.
  2. Problem statement to study.
  3. Justification of social relevance.
  4. Elaboration of a theoretical model.
  5. Methodological design of the research.
  6. Plan for gathering information.
  7. Analysis of collected experiences.
  8. Elaboration of a response.
  9. New ideas and proposals.

Measurement in Social Sciences

Measurement derives from the relationship between an empirically derived quantity (weight, height) and a reference pattern (BMI). The measurement process is a deductive process that is based on human decision and conditioned by society and culture in each historical moment.

Quantitative Approach

Main characteristics:

  1. Instrument: Statistics (Mathematics in the field studies, the commonality of any size can be measured in a phenomenon).
  2. Measurement System: The process of operationalizing allows for objectifying social phenomena (this is the transformation of a concept into measurable dimensions). According to mathematical operations that can be performed with them, they are defined at three levels:
    1. Nominal Level: Only allows you to name and classify variables (e.g., man/woman).
    2. Ordinal Level: Naming and ordering (e.g., stars of a hotel).
    3. Interval Level: Appoint, numerical order, and differentiate between variables.
  3. Survey Research Techniques.

Qualitative Approach

Basic characteristics of qualitative investigation are comprehensive and flexible:

  1. Conception of the investigation.
  2. Direct relationship between the observer and the observed.
  3. Construction of the relationship between the observer and the object of study.

Sampling Requirements

  1. Comprehend part of the universe, but not the totality.
  2. The sample size should be proportional to the magnitude of the universe.
  3. Absence of distortions in the choice of the sample (stratified sample).
  4. Representative of the population universe.

Types of Sampling

A. Probabilistic

  1. Simple Random Sampling: Simple, made up of *n* elements, with the same opportunities (lottery drum).
  2. Systematic Sampling: Only by drawing the first unit—sum of the elevation ratio (population size / sample size)—to avoid when the order is determined by nature.
  3. Stratified Sampling: Dividing the population in case of strata. In disproportionate stratification, weighting the sample assigns weights to each stratum. The distribution of the sample size of the strata (accretion) is made in three ways:
    1. Simple accretion: sample size for each stratum.
    2. Proportional to the proportional distribution of each stratum.
    3. Optimal: specific gravity, the specific weight of the stratum is the stratum variability added to the variable taken into account when stratification.
  4. Cluster Sampling: The units are collectively a larger heterogeneity; the error in the lower stratum is multistage sampling. If it is multistage, benefits include reduced cost by requiring no listings for the whole population, but more difficult sampling estimation.

B. Non-Probabilistic

Sampling frame and error estimation are not needed; it is simpler and more economical.

  1. Quota Sampling: Very used, it is quota-based to know the characteristics of the universe and its proportions.
  2. Intentional Sampling: Units serving the selection criteria used in subjective studies, usually qualitative.
  3. Accidental Sampling: Cases taken out to meet the requirement to acquire the specified sample size (people interviewed on the street).
Factors Influencing Sample Size
  1. Availability of resources.
  2. Margin of sampling error allowed.
  3. Level of confidence.
  4. Sample design.
  5. Information chosen.
  6. Population variance.
Reasons for Sampling
  1. Reliable information at a cost infinitely less than a census.
  2. Faster data collection.
  3. Frequently, more accurate data is obtained than in a census.