Social Research Techniques

Posted on Sep 17, 2024 in Mathematics

1. Likert Scale

Developed by Rensis Likert in the 1930s, the Likert scale is a widely used method for measuring opinions and attitudes. It presents respondents with a series of statements and asks them to indicate their level of agreement or disagreement using a five-point scale:

  • Strongly Agree
  • Agree
  • Indifferent
  • Disagree
  • Strongly Disagree

Each response is assigned a numerical value, and an overall score is calculated by summing the values of all responses.

2. Probability Sampling

Probability sampling is a method of selecting a sample from a population in which each member of the population has a known and equal chance of being included. This method relies on randomization and is essential for ensuring the sample’s representativeness. Examples include:

  • Simple Random Sampling
  • Stratified Random Sampling
  • Cluster Sampling

Features of Probability Sampling:

  1. Random selection of samples
  2. Equal chance of selection for each population element
  3. Determinable error and confidence estimates
  4. Generalizable results
  5. Assessment of sample representativeness
  6. Higher cost compared to non-probability sampling
  7. Slower and more complex than non-probability sampling

3. Stratified vs. Cluster Sampling

Both stratified and cluster sampling divide the population into subgroups, but they differ in their sampling units:

  • Stratified Random Sampling: Individuals are randomly selected from within strata defined by specific attributes or characteristics related to the study variable. This technique is widely used in social research and involves two criteria: stratification and allocation (simple, proportional, or optimal).
  • Cluster Random Sampling: Entire clusters are randomly selected from the population. This method is suitable for large, geographically dispersed populations. If a new sample is drawn from a previously selected cluster, it becomes multistage or multi-phase sampling.

4. CATI System (Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing)

CATI is a telephone survey method that utilizes computer technology to randomly select phone numbers and assist interviewers in recording responses. Initially used for audience and advertising research, CATI has expanded to capture various general information. It can be employed as:

  • A single research method
  • A supplementary method combined with other techniques
  • A helper method (e.g., scheduling appointments)

CATI has enabled cost-effective sociological and market research, contributing to the emergence of new methods through technological advancements.

5. Components of a Survey

  • Entity: The organization conducting the survey (public or private)
  • Title: The subject matter of the survey
  • Layout: Provides context, assures anonymity and confidentiality, and encourages accurate responses

6. Closed-Ended Questions

Closed-ended questions provide pre-defined answer choices, allowing respondents to select the most appropriate option. They are commonly used in questionnaires for gathering factual information quickly and efficiently. These questions should be:

  • Complete: Cover all possible response options
  • Exclusive: Each option should be mutually exclusive
  • Accurate: Clearly and accurately reflect the intended meaning

Types of Closed-Ended Questions:

  • Dichotomous: Offer two mutually exclusive alternatives (e.g., yes/no)
  • Multiple Choice: Present several alternatives, allowing respondents to choose one or more options
  • Basic: Directly related to the research topic
  • Irrelevant (Filler): Intended to reduce respondent fatigue and can be entertaining or informative

7. Filter and Multiple Choice Questions

  • Filter Questions: Dichotomous questions that determine the relevance of subsequent questions
  • Multiple Choice Questions: Offer several response options, suitable for complex questions and allowing multiple selections if applicable

8. The Research Report

The report communicates the research findings, including definitions, concepts, relationships between variables, supporting data, procedures, and an evaluation of the research. A typical report structure includes:

  • Introduction
  • Methodology
  • Results
  • Conclusion
  • Appendices and Annexes
  • Bibliography

9. Participant Observation

Participant observation involves direct interaction between the researcher and informants within their natural context. Data is collected systematically and non-intrusively using a flexible design. The researcher immerses themselves in the group, observing events, individuals, and interactions. Research questions may focus on:

  • Substantive issues specific to the setting
  • Theoretical sociological problems (e.g., socialization, deviance, social control)

10. Focus Group Characteristics (Krueger)

Focus groups are carefully planned discussions designed to gather information on a specific topic. They aim to stimulate discussion among participants and elicit self-disclosure. Key characteristics include:

  • Planned and structured
  • Focused on a defined area of interest
  • Qualitative data collection
  • Limited number of participants

11. Systematic Random Sampling

Systematic random sampling involves selecting every kth element from a list of the population after a random start. The sampling interval (k) is calculated by dividing the population size (N) by the desired sample size (n). The remaining sample elements are selected by adding the sampling interval to the initially chosen random number.