Social Transformation and Labor Movements in 19th and 20th Century Spain
Social Transformations, Population Growth, and the Rise of the Labor Movement in Spain
Spanish society, for centuries conditioned by a rigid social structure, underwent significant modifications. In the nineteenth century, particularly after 1833 (the death of Fernando VII), the foundations for a new society were laid, where, in theory, all individuals were equal before the law. Society transitioned from a system of closed estates, with distinct rights and obligations, to a class-based structure, where social division was primarily determined by income level.
Spain experienced marked population growth from 1833 onwards. Between 1833 and 1857, the population increased by 3,200,000, thanks to improvements in food supply (crop extension, incorporation of the potato into the diet), advances in preventive medicine (vaccination), and the introduction of hygiene measures. However, at the end of the third quarter of the nineteenth century, Spain still maintained high birth rates (36 per 1000) and mortality rates (30.4 per 1000). This was mainly because population growth was not accompanied by parallel economic development. Subsistence crises and famines persisted, leading to high mortality rates due to epidemics (measles, typhus, tuberculosis, etc.). The population distribution was uneven, with stark contrasts between heavily populated coastal areas and the sparsely populated center of the peninsula.
This period also marked the beginning of the rural exodus, as emerging industrial centers attracted rural populations. This intensified during the Restoration period, particularly towards provincial capitals, industrial centers in Catalonia and the Basque Country, and large cities like Madrid and Barcelona (which exceeded 500,000 inhabitants). Significant emigration to America also occurred, mainly from Galicia, Asturias, and the Canary Islands, with an estimated one million Spaniards crossing the Atlantic between 1880 and 1914. The late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries saw a reduction in mortality rates, although birth rates remained around 30 per thousand until World War I. This resulted in substantial population growth; the Spanish population, estimated at 18.6 million in 1900, grew to over 23 million by the end of Alfonso XIII’s reign.
These demographic shifts were accompanied by significant social changes resulting from new political and economic structures that replaced the old regime:
- The Nobility: While the nobility disappeared as a category in official censuses, they retained a significant, albeit diminished, place in the social structure. Some profited from the confiscation of church property, but the abolition of primogeniture led to the dispersal of some noble families. Some entered business and finance, while others remained tied to the land. The development of Madrid also gave rise to a new class of courtiers who resided in the capital but maintained land holdings in Andalusia, Extremadura, and Castile. Many were politically liberal but socially and religiously conservative.
- The Bourgeoisie: A rising bourgeois gentry emerged, linked to economic modernization. They wielded significant economic power, advocated for political liberalism (through census suffrage and the defense of private property) and cultural liberalism, and shared similar tastes and lifestyles with the nobility. They organized lavish social events, attended the opera, theaters, and racetracks, and resided in the expanding urban areas or suburbs. However, the growing pressure from the labor movement made the bourgeoisie feel insecure, leading them to seek support from the army.
- The Army: The army became a major social force in 19th-century Spain, with generals and officers drawn from the middle and upper classes.
- The Middle Class: Alongside the army, a numerically smaller middle class emerged, consisting of small businessmen, traders, farmers, media professionals, officials, and professionals. This group was more politically diverse than the upper class, generally favoring moderate reforms that did not threaten their stability. They frequented high schools, athenaeums, casinos, bullfights, and zarzuela performances.
- The Lower Classes: The vast majority of the Spanish population belonged to the lower classes. The persistence of outdated forms of land ownership (landlordism and smallholdings) and archaic production systems made life extremely difficult for the Spanish peasantry, anchoring the rural world in the past. By mid-century, about 55% of the farming population were day laborers, 11% were tenants, and 34% owned land. Liberal policies did little to improve their situation. Land conflicts were frequent, sometimes violent, and harshly repressed, contributing to the rapid spread of communist and anarchist doctrines in rural areas.
Despite the majority of the population remaining in agriculture, the most significant social change of the nineteenth century was the emergence of the industrial working class. The nascent industrial development drew thousands of unemployed farm workers to cities, resulting in the growth of working-class neighborhoods characterized by poor hygienic conditions, barracks, and hastily built shacks. Factory workers endured 12-14 hour workdays, low wages, unemployment, and child exploitation. Illiteracy was widespread, particularly among those from rural backgrounds.
Initial attempts at worker organization took the form of mutual aid societies, initially focused on defending wages. However, these were banned in 1844. In 1855, a general strike erupted in Barcelona in defense of freedom of association, with two workers sent to Madrid to present grievances backed by 33,000 signatures. However, the laws passed by the Cortes were disappointing and favored the interests of employers. Workers realized that liberals, including progressive liberals, would not champion their cause, leading them to align with Democratic and Republican parties. From 1863, workers began to mobilize again, this time with a more overt political agenda. The Revolution of 1868 raised hopes for social reform among workers and peasants, but the subsequent Restoration period led to a definitive split between the labor movement and the Republican and Democratic parties. The 1887 Law on Associations finally legalized workers’ parties.
The international labor movement was divided into two main ideological currents: Marxist socialism and Bakuninist anarchism.
- Socialism: In Spain, the largest socialist party, the PSOE (Partido Socialista Obrero Español), was founded in 1879 by Pablo Iglesias. It initially advocated for a Marxist revolution to establish a dictatorship of the proletariat but gradually evolved towards reformist positions, participating in elections. In 1888, Iglesias founded the UGT (Unión General de Trabajadores) union, which focused on improving working conditions (minimum wage, 8-hour workday, Sunday rest, prohibition of child labor).
- Anarchism: Anarchists lacked a single unified doctrine but shared a rejection of all forms of state organization. In Spain, two main trends emerged: Bakuninist anarchism in Andalusia, advocating for self-managed communities without private property, and anarcho-syndicalism in Catalonia, which sought to maintain unions as a form of social organization. The CNT (Confederación Nacional del Trabajo), founded in 1911, became the largest anarchist union.
The early twentieth century was characterized by the growth of worker organizations and their increasing capacity for mobilization.