Society and State: Theories, Culture, and Legitimacy
Organic Theory
A society is a group of individuals who share a common culture. Historically, the first theories to emerge were organismic. According to societal organicism, society is an organism that transcends individuals. The whole (society) is different from the sum of its parts (individuals). Organismically, society precedes the subject. Partnership is essential to being human; those isolated from it cannot be considered human. Aristotle said that one who lives outside the polis is either a god or a beast, but not a man.
Contractualist Theory and Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau
Hobbes
According to Hobbes, in the state of nature, men are poor and live in a state of war of all against all. To solve this and achieve peace, they sign a social contract, surrendering all rights to the state or ruler. The resulting political regime is tyranny. The state becomes a monster that has taken away the freedom and rights of all individuals.
Locke
Locke presents a state of nature where individuals live not in isolation but in small, happy communities, enjoying full freedom and rights. The most important right, according to Locke, is the right to private property. This gives rise to liberal democracy.
Rousseau
Rousseau posits that individuals in a state of nature are free, happy, and good but are forced into issues of survival. To solve this, society is founded, and an institution is developed to enable economic development: the division of labor, allowing individuals to exchange products. This institution is beneficial and necessary for society. Rousseau argued that society’s problems begin when an individual stakes a claim to a field, saying, ‘This is mine,’ and others are naive enough to believe him. For Rousseau, the social contract is not intended to form society but to consolidate it.
Meaning of Culture
The German word Kultur relates to the ideas and techniques of a society, opposing ignorance. The French term civilization refers to customs and social mores, opposing savagery. According to the Greeks, culture encompasses everything that allows and enables human development and individual humanization. Knowledge and culture are social practices that facilitate this humanization, opposing ‘barbarism.’
Socialization Process
Primary
Primary socialization occurs in infancy, with family and school as the main agents. The child internalizes core social standards, making them part of their conscience. Examples include taboos against incest and cannibalism.
Secondary
Secondary socialization occurs from adolescence through adulthood. Socializing agents include institutions encountered throughout life, such as college, businesses, or sports clubs. During this process, the individual assimilates social roles. Roles are the various positions an individual can hold in society, some of which are elected and others not. Social roles are the behaviors that accompany a social role.
Legality and Legitimacy in the State
A state must be both legal and legitimate. Legality refers to a state’s consistency with laws. A state is legal if it adheres to the law. Legitimacy is a moral component, referring to how a political regime holds power. A state is legitimate if it fulfills a series of moral and political conditions that permit such standing. For example, Hitler’s dictatorship was legal but not legitimate, while Franco’s dictatorship in Spain was initially both illegal and illegitimate.
The oldest concept of legitimacy is force: a regime is legitimate because it is the strongest.
Another criterion is the leader’s charisma: the leader’s personality, ability to lead the masses, or develop the state as an entitlement.
Another criterion is tradition and religion: a state is legitimate because it is based on divine commandments. A state is also legitimate when it respects the rules of democracy.
Representative Model
The representative model is established in all democratic states. It originates from the political theories of fascism theorists Mosca and Pareto, who argued that state government should be in the hands of an economic and intellectual elite. These ideas are combined with the position of Austrian political and economic theorist Joseph Schumpeter, who believed that government by the elite should be subject to market laws. Citizens choose the elite that best meets societal demands or bids the best products to satisfy those demands. Representative democracy functions as a market where elites offer their products to citizens, who periodically decide which products they prefer.