Society, Enlightenment, and Trade in 18th Century Europe
Estamental Society in the Old Regime
The Old Regime society was divided into estates. The nobility and clergy were the privileged classes, and the rest of society had no privileges.
The Privileged Classes
The Nobility: Belonged to the nobility by birth, although the King granted titles as payment for services. The nobility possessed lands on which rents were paid and could not be jailed or subjected to judicial processes. They were subjected to the King’s jurisdiction.
The Clergy: Possessed wealth, paid no taxes, and owned land from which they collected rents. It was divided into:
- High Clergy (archbishops, bishops, cardinals, abbots, and canons): Came from noble classes and could hold public offices.
- Low Clergy (priests, friars, monks): Had no wealth or land but enjoyed legal privileges.
The Non-Privileged Strata
Constituted 80% of the population (artisans, traders, etc.). In France, they were called the Third Estate. They paid taxes and did not have the privileges of the other social groups. In some European countries, farmers were given land. Some artisans and merchants accumulated wealth through their economic activities, giving rise to the bourgeoisie, who, despite their fortunes, had an inferior social status and could not move from one estate to another. The bourgeoisie could not participate in political power, but they imitated the nobles and were related to poor noble families through marriage.
The Enlightenment
Appeared in the 18th century as a philosophical, literary, and scientific movement. The basis of Enlightenment thought was reason; it was believed that man was born to be happy. They felt it was right that he agreed with nature. These ideas spread through books, newspapers, and discussions.
Innovations in Agriculture
- The most important part of the economy was agriculture: cereals, vines, and olive trees.
- Between 80 and 90% of the population lived in rural areas with old and inadequate technical means, leading to frequent livelihood crises.
- In the eighteenth century, new crops and technical innovations were introduced to increase production.
Guild Workshops to Workmanship
Workmanship was located in the city and controlled by guilds. In the 18th century, large-scale workmanship with numerous employees appeared. Production grew, and some of it was allocated to trade. In rural areas, a rural industry developed, managed by rural women.
Absolutism
In the eighteenth century, monarchs ruled under the principle of the authority of royal sovereignty. The State was identified with the figure of the King. This political system is called absolutism. Absolute power was legitimized by divine law. Natural and customary law could limit royal power. There was a limitation due to the influence of the privileged classes, the nobility, and the clergy.
The English Parliament
Since 1688, England has been ruled by a parliamentary monarchy. Parliament was the legislature and elected the prime minister, who was the executive. Parliament was divided into the House of Lords, consisting of the nobility and the clergy, and the House of Commons, formed by the lower nobility and the high bourgeoisie. Members of the House of Commons were elected by limited male suffrage. To belong to Parliament, one had to have a high income.
Enlightened Despotism
The ideas of Enlightenment philosophers and scientists questioned the social, political, and economic regime. They believed that equality and tolerance should be the foundation of human relations, ideas that influenced some European monarchs. Enlightened Despotism is a form of government whose mission was to use absolute power to benefit all subjects. Enlightened ministers were responsible for modernizing agriculture, promoting culture, arts, etc. However, it only had relevance in administrative reforms.
Enlightened Political Thought
The ideas of Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau, and Locke influenced political thought.
- Locke (1632-1704): Proposed a form of state that avoided the concentration of power and guaranteed individual liberties.
- Voltaire (1694-1778): Defender of freedom of thought and religious tolerance.
- Montesquieu (1689-1755): Believed that freedom would be maximized if the power of absolute monarchs was limited. His most important work was The Spirit of the Laws. He advocated a state model based on the division of powers: a) Legislation, b) Executive, c) Judiciary.
- Rousseau: Described man as the noble savage and argued that in society, man was a slave, while he was free in nature. In his work The Social Contract, he outlined that the sovereignty of the people is the surest guarantee of individual rights.
The Continued Growth of Trade
In the eighteenth century, overseas trade expanded, reaching America, Asia, and Africa, where colonies were established for trade advantages. The possession of colonies became a focus of conflict among European powers. Overseas trade was controlled by European monarchs, and the economic system used was Mercantilism. The East India Company and the West India Company were created for trade with America. The importance of banks and stock values increased. Credit, bills of exchange, and paper money developed.
Sectors Pioneering the Industrial Revolution
Mechanization and the factory system began, particularly in the textile and steel industries.
1. The Textile Industry
- Expansion of the cotton sector, with cotton plantations in the British North American colonies.
- Kay invented the flying shuttle in 1733. The demand for thread multiplied.
- Factories increased production.
2. The Steel Industry
- Agricultural tools and stoves were manufactured with iron.
- Darby discovered that coal could be used to melt iron.
- The Cort puddling system removed impurities from iron, making it usable in England.
- The extension of the railway line in Britain transformed the country into a producer and exporter of iron.
3. The Railway
The steam engine was applied to transportation. 10,000 km of track were built. The consequences of the railroad’s extension included attracting equity investments, boosting other industrial sectors such as coal and iron, and decreasing the price of goods.