Socioeconomic Structures and Political Transformations in Early Modern Europe
Item 1: The Old Regime in Europe
1) Economic Subsistence
a) Property: Land was the primary source of wealth, often tied to nobility, the Church, municipalities, or the Crown.
- Territorial Lordship: Land ownership (noble or ecclesiastical) included the demesne (land reserved for the lord’s exploitation) and tenured land for workers or servants.
- Manorial Rights: Lords received benefits and revenues from their properties, including economic exploitation (personal benefits, farmers’ dues, monopolies) and jurisdictional rights (manor court).
b) Agriculture: Traditional, low-productivity agriculture prevailed. Subsistence farming focused on polyculture. Key features included:
- Open-field System: Cereal production with fallow periods.
- Common Lands: Forests or pastures for communal use.
- Livestock production was insufficient, with animals grazing on fields, resulting in limited milk and meat production; diets were primarily cereal-based.
- Crop cycles dictated the economy, vulnerable to subsistence crises.
c) Population: Stagnation due to limited agricultural production. Malnutrition, poor hygiene, and health led to high mortality and low life expectancy (around 45 years for adults). High birth rates (average of 5 children per woman) and fertility were common. Population growth outpaced production, leading to demographic crises and stagnation.
d) Traditional Manufacturing: Peasant families were the basic production units for everyday goods. Urban artisans were organized into guilds.
- Domestic System (16th-17th centuries): Merchants and craftsmen bypassed guild control by employing rural families for production. Merchants provided raw materials and tools; families produced goods at home, which merchants then marketed.
- Manufactures (18th century): Luxury goods production was state-driven in Western Europe or private in England.
e) Inadequate Transportation: Limited road networks and rudimentary transportation (wagons, stagecoaches) made travel slow and costly (maximum 15-20 km/h). Sea transport (sailing) had limited capacity (100t). Inland navigation was easier and cheaper.
f) Domestic and Colonial Trade: Domestic trade was limited to local and regional levels, often conducted at fairs. Colonial trade expanded significantly from the 16th century with new maritime routes, generating substantial profits. Commercial production spurred financial growth (credit, marketing, financial institutions), leading to the rise of merchants, bankers, and lenders (commercial capitalism).
2) Social Estates
The Old Regime was divided into three estates: the clergy (prayer and divine protection), the nobility (fighting and protection), and the Third Estate (producing material goods). The defining feature was civic inequality, dividing society into the privileged (clergy and nobility) and the unprivileged (Third Estate).
a) The Privileged:
- The Clergy: Comprising about 1% of the population, they were exempt from taxes, deriving income from tithes and estates. High clergy (bishops, abbots, canons) were lords of towns and territories, while lower clergy (priests, pastors, monks) lived modestly.
- The Nobility: Representing 2-3% of the population, they controlled significant land (30-40%) and enjoyed honorable, economic, and tax privileges. Wealth varied greatly among court nobles, provincial nobility, and lesser nobles.
b) The Unprivileged: The vast majority (90-95%) included:
- Bourgeoisie: Rentiers (living off income), financial bourgeoisie (banking, tax collection), manufacturing/industrial bourgeoisie, and petite bourgeoisie (artisans, small traders, professionals).
- Urban and Rural Populations: Urban workers and peasants (serfs and free peasants).
3) Absolute Monarchy
Absolute monarchy, based on divine right, was central to the Old Regime. The monarch held absolute power, controlling legislative, executive, and judicial functions. The state was vested in the monarch, with advisory and executive institutions like the State Council (members appointed by the King, divided into finance, justice, war, etc.). Secretaries of state were also common. Local administration was managed by governors and mayors appointed by the monarch. A bureaucracy executed orders and administered justice. Limitations on royal power came from the Courts and representative bodies (three estates).
a) The Beginnings of Parliament: By the 18th century, only Britain and the Netherlands had monarchies limited by parliament. After Charles I’s failed rule, Charles II accepted the Habeas Corpus Act (1679), establishing individual freedom. In 1689, William of Orange swore the Bill of Rights, imposed by parliament.
4) Enlightenment and the Old Regime Crisis
The Enlightenment developed in 18th-century Europe, emphasizing reason as the primary means of understanding the world, along with optimism, faith in nature, and progress.
a) Critique of the Old Regime: The Enlightenment proposed a new political and social model based on freedom and equality.
- Montesquieu: Advocated the separation of powers.
- Rousseau: Defended the social contract and popular sovereignty.
- Voltaire: Championed freedom of conscience and tolerance.
- Physiocrats (e.g., Quesnay): Opposed mercantilism and laid the foundations of economic liberalism.
These ideas resonated with the bourgeoisie.
b) Enlightened Despotism: Some monarchs attempted to integrate Enlightenment ideas with royal authority. Examples include Frederick II of Prussia, Maria Theresa of Austria, and Charles III of Spain. They aimed to streamline administration, promote education, and modernize the economy, but with limited success. The contradictions of these reforms paved the way for liberal revolutions.
5) Independence of the United States
- July 4, 1776: Declaration of Independence of the United States.
- 1783: American War of Independence concluded.
- 1787: Adoption of the U.S. Constitution, establishing:
- Federal and presidential systems.
- Separation of powers.
- A bicameral legislature (House and Senate).
- Provisions for the growth of new states.
- 1790: Population of four million (including 800,000 slaves).
- Growth through migration, conquest, and westward colonization.
- 1861: Election of Abraham Lincoln as president, leading to the secession of Southern states and the Civil War (1861-65).