Sociological Thought: Comte, Marx, and Durkheim

The Genesis of Sociology

The French Revolution (1789) dismantled the old regime, ushering in the 19th century and a new social order. This era was marked by significant changes, most notably the rise of industrialization. This period, characterized by industrial capitalism, a transformation in work, and new social structures, saw the strengthening of the bond between science and its practical application, technology. Sociology emerged as a discipline during this time, with thinkers like Comte, Marx, and Durkheim analyzing the organization of this new society.

Comte’s Vision: Reorganizing Society

Auguste Comte (1798-1857) viewed the modern world as chaotic and disordered. In his work, “Plan of scientific work necessary to reorganize society” (1822), he emphasized the need to reform the system of science through an intellectual revolution. His book, “The System of Positive Politics”, echoed these ideas. While Marx attributed societal issues to economic factors, Comte believed they stemmed from social and mental anarchy. Comte, taking a conservative stance, developed a “System of Science” with six core disciplines: mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology, and sociology. His work, “Cours de philosophie positive”, explored the laws governing social phenomena.

The Law of Three Stages

Comte proposed the Law of Three Stages, suggesting that human intellectual and societal development progresses through three phases:

1. The Theological or Fictitious Stage: Humanity is at the mercy of divine will.
2. The Metaphysical or Abstract Stage: Characterized by ontological thought.
3. The Positive or Scientific Stage: Based on scientific knowledge.

Comte used these stages to narrate the history of human societies. He considered sociology the most crucial science for understanding all aspects of life, with sociologists studying the laws governing social order and progress.

Marx’s Critique: Materialism and Alienation

Karl Marx (1818-1883) famously stated, “It is not the consciousness of men that determines their being, but on the contrary, their social existence that determines their consciousness.” Marx focused not on human nature but on how humans interact with the world.

Alienation in Capitalist Society

Marx argued that in capitalist societies, individuals are alienated, feeling estranged from themselves due to the social conditions of the capitalist system. This leads to conflicts between employers and employees, highlighting the divide between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Marx aimed to demonstrate that political economy, while claiming to be a natural science, is a product of capitalist society. He argued that all economic phenomena are inherently social. His work, “Capital”, concludes that alienation is neither inherent nor eternal.

Historical Materialism

Marx’s historical materialism posits that humans are part of nature, establishing relationships with both the natural world and other humans. These material relationships, termed “social production of life,” are shaped by specific forms of production, consumption, and property. Thus, history is a reality created by human activity.

Durkheim’s Approach: Social Facts and Solidarity

Émile Durkheim (1858-1917) critiqued Comte’s Law of Three Stages and positivism. He developed a set of rules for sociology, including:

1. Treating social facts as things.
2. Searching for the cause of social facts.
3. Recognizing social facts as ways of acting or thinking.

His major works include: “The Division of Labor in Society” (1893), “The Rules of Sociological Method” (1895), “Suicide” (1897), and “The Elementary Forms of Religious Life” (1912).

Mechanical and Organic Solidarity

Durkheim explored the relationship between individuals and society through solidarity mechanisms. Mechanical solidarity arises from similarities, while organic solidarity stems from the differentiation of social integration based on differences. Durkheim argued that society shapes the individual, not the other way around.

Social Order and Anomie

Durkheim identified two types of societies: those based on mechanical solidarity, characterized by strong collective consciousness, and those based on organic solidarity, marked by a greater division of labor. He also discussed anomie, an unusual form of division of labor leading to pathological individualism. In his work on suicide, he found that a lack of social integration, rather than selfishness, is a primary cause.

The New Morality

Durkheim proposed a new morality to replace the forgotten sacred character of society. He sought to recover the social, discover new ideals, and establish a new moral framework based on three principles: the spirit of discipline, membership in social groups, and the autonomy of the will.