Socrates, Sophists, and Athenian Democracy: Philosophy and Power
Socrates
Life: Socrates was known for his constant questioning and engagement in philosophical discourse, often challenging the Sophists. He had many admirers and followers, but also detractors. Accused of corrupting the youth, he was brought to court. Instead of a conventional defense, he engaged in a philosophical discourse, challenging the judges. Unexpectedly, he was sentenced to death. He had the right to commute the death penalty for ostracism but chose to accept his fate, arguing that death might be a similar or even better experience. On the day of his execution, surrounded by friends and disciples, he drank hemlock and, before dying, discussed the immortality of the soul. His death marked the beginning of the myth of Socrates, centered around his principle: “Know thyself.” Socrates compared his philosophical activity to that of a midwife, helping others give birth to their own understanding. His methodology involved dialogue, maieutics (the art of leading a dialogue to uncover truth), and irony (famously stating, “I only know that I know nothing”). He debated Sophists, challenging their claims to knowledge and wisdom. Socrates explored concepts like justice, goodness, virtue, courage, and beauty, seeking definitions and understanding. A central theme was the good, leading to his concept of intellectualism moral: “If you know what is good, you will do it.” He also emphasized that virtue must be practiced, not just known.
Athenian Democracy and the Sophists
In the Athenian democratic system, the ability to speak persuasively was crucial for political power. Any man could participate in the assembly and influence decisions through discourse. The Sophists, often foreigners, were skilled orators and teachers who capitalized on this, offering expensive but popular education in rhetoric and argumentation. Their primary interest was often financial gain. They embraced a defensive philosophy, emphasizing the importance of effective communication. Aristocrats, who opposed democracy, disliked the Sophists for empowering ordinary citizens. A key concept in the Sophist philosophy was nomos (law). Aristocrats viewed law as a tradition rooted in religious authority, while Sophists saw it as a product of human will and agreement, subject to change. This debate extended to broader questions of human nature and politics.
Protagoras
Protagoras famously stated, “Man is the measure of all things,” implying that truth is relative to individual perception. This challenged the notion of absolute values and universal truths. This perspective led to skepticism (doubt in universal laws), relativism (values are relative to individual preferences), and voluntarism (laws are based on human agreement). Laws are seen as contractual, subject to change when necessary. This approach also reflects pragmatism, focusing on practical outcomes and agreements.
Gorgias
Gorgias was known for his rhetorical skill and skepticism. He would argue convincingly for any position, demonstrating the power of persuasion regardless of truth. He believed that even if something existed, it could not be known, and even if it could be known, it could not be communicated effectively. This extreme skepticism highlighted the limitations of human knowledge and language. Gorgias saw rhetoric as a tool for achieving power and influence, independent of truth or morality.