Socrates: The Cornerstone of Moral Philosophy in Athens
Socrates: The Cornerstone of Moral Philosophy
Early Life and Context
Socrates was born in Athens around 470 BC. Unlike the Sophists, he held no political aspirations and left no written works. He practiced a form of direct instruction, using dialogue, and focused on practical-moral issues. Notably, he did not charge for his teachings, unlike the Sophists. A model Athenian citizen, Socrates participated with great valor in the Peloponnesian War.
Trial and Death
He was accused of impiety and corrupting the youth of Athens, leading to his trial and death sentence. Although his friends prepared an escape, Socrates accepted his fate, believing it was against the laws of Athens to flee.
His trial and conviction must be understood in the context of the Sophists’ influence on Athenian society. Socrates shared the Sophists’ interest in ethical and moral issues, which had gained significant importance in Athens. However, their differences were far more substantial.
Philosophical Approach
Socrates engaged in discussions with anyone on almost any subject, without seeking financial gain, solely interested in the pursuit of truth. He opposed the ontological agnosticism, epistemological skepticism, and moral relativism that characterized most Sophists. Methodologically, he also differed significantly, adopting dialogue as the primary strategy for reaching the truth, always avoiding the monologues and rhetorical speeches that merely sought to seduce listeners.
The Socratic Method
His dialogues had two crucial moments:
- The Negative Moment (Irony): Socrates would highlight the contradictions in his interlocutor’s arguments, exposing their ignorance and preparing them for the path of truth.
- The Positive Moment (Mayeutics): Socrates would guide his interlocutor through a series of questions and answers, helping them to discover the knowledge within their own soul.
In his dialogues, Socrates often began with concrete examples and counterexamples, gradually ascending, through comparison and contrast, to a higher degree of abstraction. This allowed him to formulate universal and valid definitions. This is an inductive method, always starting from the particular to reach the universal. His inquiries often revolved around moral and aesthetic concepts such as value, beauty, and justice.
Moral Intellectualism
In his discussions, Socrates emphasized his core moral and epistemological thesis: moral intellectualism. He believed that no one knowingly does wrong and that the source of all moral error lies in ignorance. The path to virtue is the path of knowledge: the greater the exercise of intelligence and the greater the degree of wisdom, the higher the moral dignity one will attain, and the more righteous their behavior will be. Socrates firmly believed that virtue was attainable by any citizen.
Legacy
This approach was fundamentally adopted by his disciples, Plato and Aristotle, although they would later adapt it to their own perspectives and the realities of the polis.