Socrates: Virtue, Knowledge, and the Soul
Socrates (470/469 BC – 399 BC)
Socrates, an Athenian philosopher, is a constant point of reference in Greek thought. He wrote nothing, believing his message should be communicated through dialectical oratory. His main objective was to conduct a moral reform of the polis, based on knowledge. He is considered the father of moral intellectualism.
The Essence of Man
The focus of his reflection is the essence of man, which is the soul, understood as reason. This conception grounds moral intellectualism. The task of the educator is to teach men to care for their soul so they may reach virtue.
Ethics
It is essential to define concepts precisely (justice, etc.) to enable agreement on political and moral issues. Knowing what justice is allows one to be just. This leads to the concept that identifies virtue as knowledge and vice as a result of ignorance: Socratic intellectualism. No one sins willingly; those who do evil do so out of ignorance of good. By identifying virtue with knowledge, he combats sophist relativism.
He applies the traditional foundations of Athenian democracy: moral virtue, equality before the law, and equality in expressing opinions. Ultimately, virtue lies as an end in itself, not as a means to an external reward. With respect to happiness, he says it cannot come from external things, but only from the soul. The soul is happy when it has spiritual and inner harmony, that is, when it is virtuous.
Education and Dialogue
This knowledge of virtue can be taught and learned. Natural disposition is not enough to be good and virtuous. His education system is developed through dialogue. Faced with the arrogant attitude of the all-knowing, he starts from the recognition of one’s ignorance. Ironically, this is the means of highlighting the ignorance that man hides even from himself. The main phase of the method is mayeutics, the art of asking questions so that the other may discover the truth within themselves. It relies on the idea that the soul can only know the truth if it is pregnant, comparing this instrument with the art of the midwife.
Politics
He defends that the best guarantee of moral virtues is obedience to the laws of the city. Socrates noted how traditional virtues of moderation and respect for the law weakened, while individualistic, demagogic political behavior imposed itself. The theoretical doctrines of the sophists were a correlate of this. Concerned about the decline of the polis, his main goal was to recover the commitment of the citizen and the polis. Respecting the law is self-respect. He gave his life as an example: Socrates abided by the sentence, without wanting to escape, to be faithful to the covenant entered into with the laws of his city.
Conclusion
The conclusion of his thought is the idea that, based on the pursuit of virtue through self-knowledge, one finally comes to the realization of justice in the polis. (Knowledge -> Ethics -> Policy).
Aristotle’s View on the Soul
For Aristotle, the soul is the vital principle. It is the form of the body, which is matter. The union of soul and body is essential, as they are a single substance of life: the living being. The soul is what organizes and directs the various parts and functions of living beings. In the human soul, there are vegetative and sensitive parts (typical of plants and animals). The rational soul of man unifies the others without overriding them.