South America, Africa, and the Caribbean: A Geographic Perspective
Andes Mountains
The Andes are the longest mountain range in the world, located in western South America, stretching from Venezuela to Chile.
Lecture 1: Key Geographic Questions
Geographers explore the location of things, the reasons behind their placement, and how humans interact with their surroundings.
Divisions of Geography
- Physical Geography: Study of natural landscapes (mountains, rivers).
- Human Geography: Study of human societies (cities, cultures).
- Regional Geography: Study of specific regions.
Regionalization
Defining regions based on shared characteristics.
Types of Regions
- Formal: Defined by one trait (e.g., climate).
- Functional: Defined by activity (e.g., pizza delivery zone).
- Vernacular: Based on perception (e.g., “The South”).
Population Trends
Developed vs. Less Developed Countries
- Developed Countries: Slow population growth, lower birth rates.
- Less Developed Countries: Rapid growth, high birth rates.
Key Population Metrics
- Crude Birth Rate (CBR): Number of live births per 1,000 people per year.
- Crude Death Rate (CDR): Number of deaths per 1,000 people per year.
- Rate of Natural Increase (RNI): Population growth = CBR minus CDR, shown as a percentage.
- Total Fertility Rate (TFR): Average number of children a woman will have in her lifetime.
- Doubling Time: How long it takes for a population to double, using the rule of 69.
- Dependency Ratio: The ratio of dependents (young and elderly) to the working-age population.
Population Distribution
- Dense Areas: Coasts, river valleys.
- Sparse Areas: Deserts, mountains.
Population Increase Factors
Key factors include the Agricultural, Industrial, and Medical Revolutions.
Demographic Transition Model and Criticisms
Shows how birth and death rates change as a country develops. Criticized for being too Eurocentric.
Urbanization
Characteristics
People moving from rural to urban areas for jobs and better living conditions.
Push/Pull Factors
- Push Factors: Negative conditions (e.g., war) that drive people away.
- Pull Factors: Positive conditions (e.g., jobs) that attract people.
Lecture 2: Culture
Elements of Culture
- Values: Beliefs about what is good.
- Norms: Rules that guide behavior.
- Symbols: Things that represent something else in culture.
Types of Religions
- Universalizing Religions: Religions that seek to convert people globally (e.g., Christianity, Islam).
- Ethnic Religions: Religions specific to a group, passed down through generations (e.g., Judaism, Hinduism).
Cultural Concepts
- Cultural Landscape: The physical manifestation of culture (e.g., buildings, fields).
- Cultural Traits: Characteristics of human activity like language, food, and traditions.
- Folk vs. Pop Culture: Folk Culture: Rural, traditional ways of life. Pop Culture: Urban, widespread, and changes rapidly.
- Cultural Imperialism: The imposition of one culture over another (often through colonialism).
Cultural Change
Culture changes through diffusion (spread of ideas), innovation, and migration.
Globalization
The process of increased interconnectedness between countries through trade, culture, technology, and ideas. Example: Spread of fast food chains, technology, and fashion worldwide.
Migration
Types of Migration
- Voluntary Migration: Moving for better opportunities.
- Push/Pull Factors: Reasons for migration, such as war (push) or jobs (pull).
Geopolitics
Studies how geography influences political activity and power.
Political Entities
- State: A political entity with a government (e.g., France).
- Nation: A group of people with a common identity (e.g., Kurds).
- Multinational State: A state with multiple ethnic groups (e.g., Russia).
Political Processes
- Colonialism: Control over foreign territory.
- Decolonization: Colonies gaining independence.
- Imperialism: Control of land already occupied by native people.
- Neocolonialism: Powerful countries indirectly control weaker ones through economic or political pressure.
Supranational Organizations
Examples: UN, EU. Countries cooperate on issues like trade and security.
Lecture 3: Economic Development
Economic Indicators
- GDP: Total value of goods/services produced in a country.
- GNI: GDP plus income from abroad.
- GNI per Capita: GNI divided by the population, measuring average wealth.
- Human Development Index (HDI): Measures quality of life, including education and life expectancy.
Globalism
Concept and Opposition
- Globalism: The idea that the world is increasingly interconnected.
- Opposition: Criticisms include loss of local culture and environmental harm.
Lecture 4: Physical Geography
Earth Processes
- Endogenic: Internal Earth processes like plate tectonics.
- Exogenic: External processes like weathering and erosion.
Continental Drift
Theory that continents were once connected (Pangaea) and drifted apart.
Plate Tectonics
Earth’s surface is divided into plates that move.
Plate Boundaries
- Convergent: Plates collide.
- Divergent: Plates move apart.
- Transform: Plates slide past each other.
Agriculture
Types of Agriculture
- Commercial: Farming for profit.
- Subsistence: Farming for personal use.
Green Revolution
Use of technology to increase food production in developing countries.
Weather vs. Climate
- Weather: Short-term atmospheric conditions.
- Climate: Long-term average weather patterns.
Lectures 5 & 6: North America
Regions
Key regions include the Rocky Mountains, Great Plains, and Great Lakes.
Population Density
Most North Americans (80%) live in urban metropolitan areas, especially in southern Canada and the U.S.
Organizations
- NATO: 31-member military alliance.
- OAS: Alliance of 35 American states.
- NORAD: U.S.-Canada air defense alliance.
- ANZUS: Military alliance between Australia, New Zealand, and the U.S.
- USMCA: Replaced NAFTA.
Lecture 7: The Caribbean
Geography
- Greater Antilles: Larger islands like Cuba and Jamaica.
- Lesser Antilles: Smaller islands from the Virgin Islands to Trinidad.
- Rimland: Coastal areas like Belize and the Guianas.
Climate and Natural Hazards
Warm and wet, with tropical forests. Hurricanes are common.
Caribbean Diaspora
Many people leave the Caribbean for economic reasons.
Creolization
The blending of African, European, and Indigenous cultures.
Lectures 8 & 9: Latin America
Diversity
Varied climates, from rainforests to deserts, and a mix of Spanish, Portuguese, and Indigenous influences.
Geography
- Deserts: Atacama (driest), Patagonia.
- River Basins: Amazon, Plata, Orinoco.
- Mountains: Andes.
History
- Colombian Exchange: Transfer of crops, animals, and diseases between the Americas and Europe.
- Demographic Collapse: Native populations drastically reduced after 1500.
Environmental Concerns
Deforestation, soil erosion, and urban pollution.
Lectures 10 & 11: Sub-Saharan Africa
Colonialism
African borders drawn by Europeans, leading to ethnic conflicts.
Geography
- Rift Valley and Ethiopian Plateau: Significant landforms.
- Major Rivers: Congo, Nile, Niger, Zambezi.
- Sahel: Semi-arid region south of the Sahara.
Population Challenges
High fertility rates and rapid growth.
History
- Berlin Conference (1884): European powers divided Africa.
- Apartheid in South Africa: System of racial segregation.
Questions and Answers
Q: Geography is concerned with understanding the relationships between? A: People, places, and environments.
Q: The two geographic concepts that help to explain why places are different are? A: Spatial interaction and diffusion.
Q: The region of the world with the largest population is? A: East Asia.
Q: Which region of South Asia has the densest population? A: Ganges River Valley.
Q: According to the Demographic Transition Theory, the most rapid population growth occurs during? A: Stages 2 and 3.
Q: From the countries listed, which one would be expected to have the highest rate of natural increase? A: Nigeria.
Q: The blending of two or more cultures that produces a synergistic third culture is called? A: Cultural syncretism.
Q: The English language is part of the? A: Germanic language family.
Q: An example of an ethnic religion is? A: Judaism.
Q: The ability (or inability) of a government to control activities within its borders is known as? A: Sovereignty.
Q: The term used to describe the close link between geography and politics is known as? A: Geopolitics.
Q: The Kurdish ethnic group is spread across which countries? A: Turkey, Iran, Iraq, and Syria.
Q: What is colonialism? A: The formal establishment of rule over a foreign population.
Q: What is the process of a colony’s gaining (or regaining) control over its territory and establishing a separate, independent government? A: Decolonization.
Q: The Poverty Curtain is located at? A: 30 degrees north latitude.
Q: Economic policies that were widely adopted in the 1990s that stressed privatization of services, export production, and the removal of import restrictions are referred to as? A: Neoliberalism.
Q: The lowest Human Development Index (HDI) scores are found in? A: Sub-Saharan Africa.
Q: A good, but not perfect, measure of the economic well-being of a country’s population is the? A: GNI per capita.
Q: The goal of the ____ is to create a single global economy? A: WTO.
Q: Anthropogenic emissions, especially of greenhouse gases, are generated by? A: People.
Q: The process of moist air rising up and over a mountain range, where it cools and results in condensation and precipitation on its windward side, is known as the? A: Orographic effect.
Q: Evergreen forests? A: Keep their foliage throughout the year.
Q: According to the theory of plate tectonics, large ____ circulate molten rock in different directions within Earth’s mantle. A: Convection cells.
Q: Areas defined by natural characteristics such as similar plant and animal life are known as? A: Bioregions.
Q: Glacial scarring found in tropical regions is an example of evidence for what? A: Theory of Continental Drift.
Q: The Northern Hemisphere is tilted away from the sun during on this day, and the South Pole receives 24 hours of daylight. A: Winter Solstice.
Q: Volcanic eruptions can cause short-term climate changes? A: True.
Q: Which of the following statements about squatter settlements in Latin America is FALSE? A: They are usually located in the city center on high-quality land.
Q: What is the name of the mountain chain that extends the length of South America’s west coast? A: Andes.
Q: Which of the following environmental problems is associated particularly with Mexico City and Santiago, worsened by their local geography and meteorology? A: Air pollution.
Q: The three great river basins draining South America are the? A: Amazon, Orinoco, and Plata.
Q: What was the size of the indigenous population of Latin America by 1650, after a century and a half of colonization? A: One-tenth its original size.
Q: What is grassification? A: The conversion of tropical forest into pasture.
Q: What country of Latin America has the region’s largest population? A: Brazil.
Q: What is the name of the high-altitude plateau where the Andes Mountains reach their greatest width? A: Altiplano.
Q: What environmental issue [is] most commonly associated with Latin America? A: Deforestation.
Q: What country do most documented Hispanic immigrants to the United States come from? A: Mexico.
Q: Where is the Great Escarpment landform located? A: Southern Africa, from Angola to South Africa.
Q: Which is the most densely populated region of Sub-Saharan Africa? A: Rwanda and Burundi.
Q: Africa’s largest tropical rainforest, the Ituri rainforest, is located in the watershed of what river? A: Congo.
Q: Where in Sub-Saharan Africa are Mediterranean-type climates located? A: Southern Africa.
Q: Which of the following African countries has extensive mountainous topography, being home to the northern extent of the Great Rift Valley? A: Ethiopia.
Q: The highest rates of HIV/AIDS are found in which part of Sub-Saharan Africa? A: The southern portion of the region.
Q: Which river is a critical source of water for West Africa, especially Mali and Niger? A: Niger.
Q: Located in Nigeria, the most populous city in Sub-Saharan Africa is? A: Lagos.
Q: Which statement is TRUE regarding the population pyramids of Ethiopia and South Africa? A: South Africa has a lower fertility rate than Ethiopia.
Q: In what regions of Sub-Saharan Africa is desertification most severe? A: The Sahel, the Horn of Africa, and parts of southern Africa.