Spain: Absolutism, Liberalism, and American Independence
Fernando VII: Absolutism and Liberalism
The Coup and Repression
Upon returning to Spain in 1814, Fernando VII launched a coup, abolishing Parliament, nullifying its actions, and revoking the Constitution. General Eguía arrested regents, ministers, and deputies. The army, nobility, and clergy, as expressed in the Manifesto of the Persians, supported the coup, rallying around the old regime, royal absolutism, and the alliance of church and state. The Constitution, along with disentailment laws, freedom of the press, and tax reforms, were repealed. Privileges of the nobility and the church were restored. This return to absolutism wasn’t isolated; it reflected a broader European restoration of the Old Regime following Napoleon’s defeat. The Congress of Vienna, signed by the victorious powers, aimed to suppress liberal and revolutionary movements. Repression followed the coup.
The Sexenio Absolutista (1814-1820)
Ferdinand’s rule was marked by political instability and frequent ministerial changes. A clique of royal favorites held significant power. The economic situation was dire. Falling prices due to good harvests followed a period of European wars. The state faced financial collapse, consistently spending more than its income. Farmers suffered due to the 1814 measures, and discontent spread to cities. The army felt slighted, and Fernando VII refused to incorporate guerrilla leaders. Underground liberal circles and Masonic lodges reorganized in major cities.
The Trienio Constitucional (1820-1823)
On January 1, 1820, Commander Riego successfully launched a coup in favor of the Constitution. The Trienio Constitucional was a period of political turmoil. Divisions emerged among liberals, with moderates holding a minority in the courts and radicals forming the majority. The King’s regressive attitude further fueled instability.
Trienio Reforms
During these three years, Parliament enacted new reform legislation. Land reform measures were adopted, primarily benefiting landowners over peasants. Religious policy was marked by anticlericalism and the assertion of state authority. The Church opposed the liberal regime and supported counterrevolutionaries. Military reforms aimed to improve wages. Education reform focused on secularization and a three-tiered system. The governments of the Trienio attempted to address financial problems by cutting costs.
The Counterrevolution and the Fall of the Liberal Government
Counterrevolutionary actions and foreign intervention precipitated the end of the liberal experiment. In July 1822, a counter-insurgency attempt saw four Royal Guard regiments revolt. A new government was formed to monitor the King, who was under suspicion. Since 1821, absolutist aristocracy and clergy organized guerrilla groups in the north. European powers, at the Congress of Verona, decided on military intervention to end the liberal government.
The Ominous Decade (1823-1833): Repression and Reaction
The Liberals called this period the “Ominous Decade.” It was characterized by renewed repression and terror against liberals. After the fall of Cadiz, Ferdinand VII annulled all laws passed during the Trienio Constitucional and reinstated absolutist institutions and authorities. Repression intensified, with a witch-hunt leading to the death and imprisonment of thousands. Many fled into exile. Both sides had their property expropriated. Censorship was reinstated. Volunteer realistas, staunch absolutists, were created. This return to absolutism differed from 1814; changes were necessary to preserve the Old Regime. A Council of Ministers was created, costs were cut, and finances were brought under some control. The Inquisition remained abolished. Ferdinand VII, with a reformist minister, tried to distance himself from radical absolutists. This restraint led to the emergence of the realistas. In 1827, they revolted in the Catalan Pyrenees, sparking the War of the Aggrieved.
The Agony and the Inheritance Crisis of Absolutism
Economic chaos persisted in the countryside and in crafts, with only the Catalan textile industry showing growth. From 1830, liberal conspiracies reemerged. A succession crisis arose as Ferdinand VII had no children with his three wives. He married his niece María Cristina, who bore him a daughter. Cea Bermúdez, appointed to office, allowed María Cristina to chair the Council. Ferdinand VII died on September 29, 1833, beginning María Cristina’s regency.
The Emancipation of Spanish America
The Causes of Independence
The American independence movement stemmed from Bourbon policies in America and the continent’s social structure. Creoles, controlling finances and plantations, formed the most powerful social group. Indians, mestizos, and blacks constituted a mass of peasants and miners exploited by Creoles and peninsulares (Spanish-born officials). Peninsulares held all important public offices. Creoles resented their discriminatory treatment and the Spanish monopoly that hindered their foreign trade. Seventeenth-century protest movements and peasant uprisings fostered a climate of emancipation.
The Start of the Independence Process
The independence process was complex, involving political actions, urban and peasant revolts. Initially, Indians supported the Spanish crown but later joined the liberation movement. The first phase coincided with the 1808-1814 war. In major cities, the native bourgeoisie promoted juntas similar to those in Spain. They later rejected the authority of the Central Junta, forming revolutionary meetings in several cities. Internal divisions among Creole leaders allowed for a royalist reaction. Independence leaders were imprisoned or exiled.
The Triumph of Independence
The second phase began after the restoration of absolutism in Spain, reigniting the desire for independence. From 1816, revolutionary forces revived their actions. The United Provinces of South America (future Argentina) declared independence. The Argentine army defeated the Spanish, enabling Chile’s independence proclamation in February 1818. Simón Bolívar led the process in Venezuela. After capturing Angostura, a congress proclaimed the Republic of Gran Colombia (present-day Venezuela, Colombia, and Panama) in 1819, with Bolívar as president. The final phase followed the 1820 revolution in Spain, which weakened the colonial army. In July 1821, American troops entered Lima, proclaiming Peru’s independence. Bolivia’s independence followed months later. In Mexico, General Agustín de Iturbide, supported by all social forces, defeated the royalist army and proclaimed independence through the Plan of Iguala. By 1825, only Cuba and Puerto Rico remained under Spanish rule.