Spain: Absolutism, Liberalism, and American Independence (1813-1833)
Ferdinand VII: Absolutism and Liberalism (1813-1833)
Return to Absolutism (1813-1814)
From 1813, absolutist factions prepared for Ferdinand VII’s return as an absolute monarch, despite his earlier promise to uphold the 1812 Constitution. The Manifesto of the Persians, presented in Valencia, reflected this sentiment. Upon his arrival, Ferdinand issued the decree of May 4, 1814, abolishing the Cadiz Constitution. This move faced little resistance, as most Spaniards were unfamiliar with the document.
Following Napoleon’s defeat, European monarchies convened at the Congress of Vienna and formed the Holy Alliance in 1815 to suppress liberal movements.
The Absolutist Sexenio (1814-1820)
Supported by the Church and wealthy landowners, Ferdinand VII persecuted liberals, forcing many into exile. He suppressed freedoms and rights, reinstated the Inquisition, and expelled university professors. Despite this repression, discontent simmered. Non-privileged classes lost jurisdictional rights and properties. The neglected army staged uprisings, including the Espoz y Mina plot in 1814 and the Porlier plot in 1815. Economic hardship further fueled unrest.
On January 1, 1820, Commander Rafael del Riego proclaimed the 1812 Constitution in Seville, gaining support from other soldiers and ultimately forcing the king’s acceptance.
The Liberal Trienio (1820-1823)
A moderate government implemented tax reforms, dividing the state into 49 provinces for efficient tax collection. Freedom of the press, individual rights, and the inviolability of the home were established. The Church’s power was reduced, Jesuits were expelled, and some monastic orders were dissolved or expropriated.
Liberals split into two factions: the Moderates (Doceanistas), who favored limited suffrage and a gradual approach to reform, and the Extremists (Progressives), who advocated universal male suffrage and significant reductions in the power of the Church and nobility.
Absolutist conspiracies, backed by the increasingly radicalized king, persisted. Ferdinand sought the Holy Alliance’s intervention. Armed uprisings erupted in Catalonia, Basque Country, Navarre, Galicia, and Valencia. Fearing civil war, the Holy Alliance dispatched the Hundred Thousand Sons of St. Louis, restoring absolutism.
The Ominous Decade (1823-1833)
Repression returned. Liberals were persecuted, exiled, or executed. The Church supported the king’s actions. Despite some administrative and financial reforms, including the creation of the Council of State and improved economic conditions due to the independence of American colonies, the period remained turbulent.
Liberals continued to conspire, both within Spain and in exile. Even some absolutists withdrew their support from Ferdinand, aligning with Carlos María Isidro.
Independence of the American Colonies (1808-1824)
Causes
Spanish control over its colonies weakened during the 17th and 18th centuries. Enlightenment ideas and the example of the United States fueled Creole discontent. This independence movement was primarily driven by the Creole elite, not a popular uprising.
Stages
- 1806-1814: Miranda’s attempted invasion of Buenos Aires and the Bayonne abdications led to the formation of Juntas in American cities. Some declared independence (Caracas in 1811), sparking conflicts.
- 1814-1816: Spain suppressed some rebellions (Hidalgo in Mexico, Bolívar in Venezuela, Francia in Paraguay). Argentina declared independence in 1816.
- 1816-1824: Bolívar and San Martín, with British support, liberated Colombia and Chile. The Battle of Ayacucho in 1824 secured Peruvian independence, marking the end of the Spanish colonial empire (except for Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and other islands).
Implications for Spain
The loss of American colonies severely impacted Spain’s economy and reduced its global standing.
Consequences for America
Independence primarily benefited the Creole elite. Militarism, foreign intervention, and border wars marked the post-independence period. The former colonies fragmented into independent states, often influenced by powers like the U.S. and England.