Spain: Democratic Sexenio & Restoration (1868-1881)
The Democratic Sexenio
Democratic Attempts
A triumphant revolutionary movement formed a provisional government chaired by General Serrano. Constituent courts, convened after the general election, gave victory to progressives and a monarchical-democratic minority, adopting the Constitution of 1869. This constitution, considered the most democratic and advanced of its time in both Spain and Europe, established universal male suffrage, the rights of association and reunion (which had not been previously recognized and favored the labor movement), and freedom of religion, although the state continued to fund the Catholic Church. The monarchy was chosen as the form of government, and the search began for a foreign prince.
Amadeo I of Savoy (1871-1873)
General Prim, a democrat who did not belong to the Bourbons, even offered the crown to General Espartero. Eventually, the Prince of Savoy, Amadeo, son of King Victor Emmanuel II of Italy, was chosen. Amadeo agreed to be King of Spain, arriving in January 1871, just days after General Prim was assassinated. His reign, lacking sufficient support from various political parties, lasted only two years and was marked by instability. The Carlist War broke out in the north, and the Ten Years’ War began in Cuba. Amadeo abdicated the Spanish crown and left Spain.
The First Republic (1873-1874)
Following Amadeo I’s departure, the Courts proclaimed the First Republic. Figueras, the first president, held elections for constituent courts, where the Federalist Republicans, led by Pi i Margall, triumphed. Pi i Margall became the second president. Several cities, including Valencia, Seville, and Cartagena, proclaimed themselves independent in a cantonalist movement. Salmerón, the next president, suppressed the movement, except in Cartagena. He resigned in 1874, refusing to sign two death sentences. Emilio Castelar, a university professor, was then elected president. Castelar requested authorization from the courts for authoritarian measures to end the disorder. General Pavia, Captain General of Madrid, entered the courts with his troops, expelling the members and ending the Republic. A provisional government headed by General Serrano was formed, dominated by Conservatives seeking to end the disorder.
The Restoration (1875-1881) and Cánovas’ System
Antonio Cánovas del Castillo prepared for the return of Alfonso XII. The future king signed the Sandhurst Manifesto, promising to rule for all Spaniards. Cánovas aimed for a peaceful restoration, but General Martínez Campos proclaimed Alfonso XII king in Sagunto. Alfonso XII returned to Spain in 1875.
Cánovas established a system where sovereignty was shared between the king and the courts, with two main political parties: the Conservatives, led by Cánovas, and the Liberals, led by Práxedes Mateo Sagasta. These parties would alternate in power, mirroring the British system. The 1876 Constitution, characterized by its flexibility, allowed for the governance of both parties. Key features included shared sovereignty, recognized rights similar to those of 1869, the king’s power to summon and dissolve the courts and appoint ministers, and two legislative chambers.
The Liberal party, led by Sagasta, came to power in 1881 and approved the Universal Suffrage Act. While the two parties alternated in power, the system was flawed due to electoral manipulation. When the Madrid oligarchy decided it was time for a change in government, they communicated their decision to the civil governors, who instructed local caciques to ensure the desired candidate won the elections. If the desired outcome wasn’t achieved, rigging was employed.