Spain: Ferdinand VII’s Absolutism & Isabella II’s Ascent
The Ominous Decade (1823-1833)
French Intervention and Repression
At the request of Ferdinand VII and mandated by the Holy Alliance, France intervened in Spain in 1823. The invading army, known as the Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis under the command of the Duke of Angoulême, successfully restored Ferdinand VII as an absolute monarch. This task was relatively easy, as the Spanish populace largely did not resist.
Following the restoration, severe repression was unleashed against the Liberals. Many were executed or forced into exile. The existing army was dissolved and replaced. General Riego, a prominent military figure, was tortured and executed. Although the Inquisition was not formally restored, Juntas de Fe (Councils of Faith) were created, performing similar functions, albeit often perceived as milder and more directly involving the government.
Government and Absolutist Divisions
New ministries were established to manage the country, some led by ministers influenced by enlightened despotism. However, Spain faced a deep crisis, exacerbated by divisions within the absolutist camp:
- Moderate Absolutists: Heirs to enlightened despotism, they were willing to compromise with the bourgeoisie to foster economic activity. They were supporters of Ferdinand VII.
- Radical Absolutists (Apostólicos): Led by Ferdinand VII’s brother, Carlos María Isidro, they vehemently opposed any change and sought to maintain the old system without alterations.
The Dynastic Conflict and Carlist War
The Pragmatic Sanction
According to traditional succession laws (specifically the Salic Law introduced by the Bourbons), the throne should have passed to Ferdinand VII’s brother, Carlos María Isidro, upon Ferdinand’s death as the king had no male heirs. However, Ferdinand VII married Maria Cristina de Borbón, and they had a daughter, Isabella. Before his death, Ferdinand VII wanted his daughter to succeed him. To enable this, he repealed the Salic Law through the Pragmatic Sanction, allowing female succession. This move deeply angered the radical absolutists, who rallied behind Carlos María Isidro.
The First Carlist War (1833-1840)
When Ferdinand VII fell gravely ill and eventually died in 1833, his wife Maria Cristina became regent for the young Isabella II. Facing the uprising of Carlos’s supporters (the Carlists), Maria Cristina knew she needed support from groups closer to liberalism to secure her daughter’s throne. In return for their support, the Liberals demanded concessions that would prevent a return to the old regime and end absolutism. The cause of Isabella II was also backed by the moderate nobility, government officials, and parts of the church hierarchy.
Ideologies and Supporters
The Carlist ideology was traditionalist and anti-liberal. Their motto was “Dios, Patria, Fueros” (God, Country, and Regional Charters). Key supporters of Carlism included:
- Significant parts of the clergy
- Segments of the nobility
- Many peasants
- Territories like the Basque Country and Navarre (seeking to maintain their traditional privileges or fueros)
- Regions like Aragon, Catalonia, and Valencia (hoping to regain lost privileges)
Warfare and Outcome
The Carlists lacked a large, regular army and primarily employed guerrilla warfare tactics. They failed to capture any major cities. A significant blow occurred when they attempted to take Bilbao, during which their most capable strategist, General Zumalacárregui, died.
Internal weakness further hampered the Carlist cause, leading to a division:
- Transaccionistas: Willing to negotiate an agreement with the Liberals.
- Intransigentes: Determined to continue the war at any cost.
Ultimately, an agreement, the Convention of Vergara (1839), was reached between the Liberal general Espartero and the Carlist Transaccionista leader Maroto. This treaty effectively ended the First Carlist War, confirmed Isabella II as queen, and included provisions regarding the maintenance of fueros in Navarre and the Basque provinces.
Early Reign of Isabella II (Regency Period)
Maria Cristina’s Regency and the Royal Statute
Since Isabella II was too young to rule when proclaimed queen, her mother, Maria Cristina, acted as regent. During the Carlist War, Maria Cristina relied on Liberal support. Instead of approving a full constitution as demanded by the more progressive Liberals, she granted the Estatuto Real (Royal Statute) of 1834, drafted at the request of the moderate Liberal Martínez de la Rosa. This document was a granted charter, not a constitution originating from the people; it did not recognize national sovereignty or a clear separation of powers.
Mendizábal’s Disentailment
The kingdom faced severe financial difficulties, partly due to the expenses of the Carlist War. To address the crisis, the progressive Liberal Juan Álvarez Mendizábal was appointed to oversee a major process of disentailment (desamortización), primarily targeting lands owned by the Church (both regular and secular clergy) and, to some extent, communal lands.
Process and Goals
The primary goals were:
- To reduce the economic power of the Church and nobility.
- To create a class of medium and large landowners loyal to Isabella II’s regime.
- To raise funds for the state treasury.
Mendizábal first targeted the properties of the regular clergy (monastic orders). Later, when General Espartero held power, the disentailment was extended to the properties of the secular clergy (parish priests, bishops). This process was temporarily halted when the Moderates returned to power.
The confiscated lands were sold at public auction. Payment could often be made partially in cash (around 20%), with the remainder payable in installments or using state debt bonds. However, since these bonds were accepted at face value while trading significantly below it, the state did not gain as much revenue as anticipated.
Consequences
The disentailment had significant consequences:
- Most peasants lacked the capital to purchase the lands, preventing the creation of a large class of smallholders.
- It led to an increase in the size of large estates (latifundia), as lands were primarily bought by the urban bourgeoisie and wealthier rural landowners.
- The Church lost a significant portion (estimated around 62%) of its property and thus much of its direct economic power, although it retained considerable ideological influence.
- The state debt problem was not fully resolved, despite the large-scale sale of assets.
- Land ownership patterns shifted, consolidating land in fewer hands.